{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T15:40:44Z","timestamp":1783698044545,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]],"date-time":"2022-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646092800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010418","name":"Institute for Information and Communications Technology Promotion","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2014-3-00065"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014-3-00065"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010418","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010418","name":"Institute for Information and Communications Technology Promotion","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-0-01343"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-0-01343"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010418","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The interference between software components is increasing in safety-critical domains, such as autonomous driving. Low-criticality (LC) tasks, such as vehicle communication, may control high-criticality (HC) tasks, such as acceleration. In such cases, the LC task should also be considered as an HC task because the HC tasks relies on the LC task. However, the difficulty in guaranteeing these LC tasks is the catastrophic cost of computing resources, the electronic control unit in the domain of vehicles, required for every task. In this paper, we theoretically and practically provide safety-guaranteed and inexpensive scheduling for LC tasks by borrowing the computational power of neighbored systems in distributed systems, obviating the need for additional hardware components. As a result, our approach extended the schedulability of LC tasks without violating the HC tasks. Based on the deadline test, the compatibility of our approach with the task-level MC scheduler was higher than that of the system-level MC scheduler, such that the task-level had all dropped LC tasks recovered while the system-level only had 25.5% recovery. Conversely, from the worst-case measurement of violated HC tasks, the HC tasks were violated by the task-level MC scheduler more often than by the system-level MC scheduler, with 70.3% and 15.4% average response time overhead, respectively. In conclusion, under the condition that the HC task ratio has lower than 47% of the overall task systems at 80% of total utilization, the task-level approach with task migration has extensively higher sustainability on LC tasks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22051926","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]],"date-time":"2022-03-01T21:25:14Z","timestamp":1646169914000},"page":"1926","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Task Migration and Scheduler for Mixed-Criticality Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2157-0152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeanseong","family":"Baik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5887-2184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaewoo","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Security, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6587-7044","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyungtae","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2018). Road Vehicles\u2014Functional Safety\u2014Part 9: Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL)-Oriented and Safety-Oriented Analyses (Standard No. ISO26262-9:2018). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/68391.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Selicean, D.T. (2014). Design of Mixed-Criticality Applications on Distributed Real-Time Systems. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Technical University of Denmark]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"AUTOSAR (2021, November 09). AUTOSAR Official Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.autosar.org\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"SIEMENS (2021, November 09). Enablement of Heterogeneous OSes and Mixed-Criticality System. Available online: https:\/\/resources.sw.siemens.com\/en-US\/white-paper-heterogeneous-oses-and-mixed-criticality."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"BlackBerry Limited (2021, November 09). QNX: How to Safely Consolidate Mixed Criticality Functions on a Single Soc. Available online: https:\/\/blackberry.qnx.com\/en\/forms\/how-to-safely-consolidate-mixed-criticality-functions-on-a-single-soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vestal, S. (2007, January 3\u20136). Preemptive scheduling of multi-criticality systems with varying degrees of execution time assurance. Proceedings of the IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS), Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTSS.2007.47"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/2.179115","article-title":"Load distributing for locally distributed systems","volume":"25","author":"Shivaratri","year":"1992","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baruah, S., Bonifaci, V., D\u2019Angelo, G., Li, H., Marchetti-Spaccamela, A., Ster, S.V.D., and Stougie, L. (2012, January 11\u201313). The preemptive uniprocessor scheduling of mixed-criticality implicit-deadline sporadic task systems. Proceedings of the Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems (ECRTS), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECRTS.2012.42"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3126498","article-title":"MC-ADAPT: Adaptive task dropping in mixed-criticality scheduling","volume":"16","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Embed. Comput. Syst. (TECS)."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demetrescu, C., and Halld\u00f3rsson, M.M. (2011). Mixed-Criticality Scheduling of Sporadic Task Systems. Algorithms\u2014ESA 2011, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23719-5"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daigle, M., Roychoudhury, I., Spirkovska, L., Goebel, K., Sankararaman, S., Ossenfort, J., and Kulkarni, C. (2017, January 5\u20139). Real-time prediction of safety margins in the national airspace. Proceedings of the AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2017-4388"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Baruah, S.K., Burns, A., and Davis, R.I. (December, January 29). Response-time analysis for mixed criticality systems. Proceedings of the IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS), Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faggioli, D., Trimarchi, M., Checchoni, F., Bertogna, M., and Mancina, A. (2009, January 8\u201312). An implementation of the earliest deadline first algorithm in Linux. Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Applied Computing (SAC), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1529282.1529723"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.2335","article-title":"Deadline scheduling in the Linux kernel","volume":"46","author":"Lelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Softw. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11241-014-9214-8","article-title":"Design optimization of TTEthernet-based distributed real-time systems","volume":"51","author":"Pop","year":"2015","journal-title":"Real-Time Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, L., He, F., Li, E., and Lu, J. (2018, January 23\u201327). Comparison of Time Sensitive Networking (TSN) and TTEthernet. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/AIAA 37th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/DASC.2018.8569454"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2021, November 09). Ftrace: Function Tracing Framework for the Linux Kernel. Available online: https:\/\/sites.google.com\/site\/cis115textbook\/safety-critical-systems."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11241-010-9106-5","article-title":"Improved priority assignment for global fixed priority pre-emptive scheduling in multiprocessor real-time systems","volume":"47","author":"Davis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Real-Time Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2017.2759765","article-title":"MC-Fluid: Multi-Core Fluid-Based Mixed-Criticality Scheduling","volume":"67","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burns, A., and Davis, R.I. (2013, January 9\u201312). Mixed criticality on controller area network. Proceedings of the Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems (ECRTS), Los Alamitos, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECRTS.2013.23"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2021, November 09). ARM: Safety-Critical System Design in Automotive Vehicles. Available online: https:\/\/community.arm.com\/arm-community-blogs\/b\/embedded-blog\/posts\/a-starters-guide-to-arm-processing-power-in-automotive."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeong, H., Baik, J., and Kang, K. (2017, January 5\u20138). Functional level hot-patching platform for executable and linkable format binaries. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2017.8122653"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niesler, C., Surminski, S., and Davi, L. (2021, January 21\u201325). HERA: Hotpatching of Embedded Real-time Applications. Proceedings of the Network and Distributed Systems Security (NDSS) Symposium, Virtual.","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2021.24159"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frigerio, A., Vermeulen, B., and Goossens, K. (2019, January 24\u201327). Component-level ASIL decomposition for automotive architectures. Proceedings of the IEEE\/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks Workshop (DSN-W), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSN-W.2019.00021"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62837","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3074813","article-title":"Automotive Architecture Topologies: Analysis for Safety-Critical Autonomous Vehicle Applications","volume":"9","author":"Frigerio","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3462776","article-title":"SLAQA: Quality-Level Aware Scheduling of Task Graphs on Heterogeneous Distributed Systems","volume":"20","author":"Roy","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Embed. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2019.09.016","article-title":"Agent-based Internet of Things: State-of-the-art and research challenges","volume":"102","author":"Savaglio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2004.12.018","article-title":"Urban traffic systems modelling methodology","volume":"99","author":"Chabrol","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"213","article-title":"Agent-based management of non urban road meteorological incidents","volume":"Volume 3690","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.742","article-title":"Mobile-C: A mobile agent platform for mobile C\/C++ agents","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Softw. Pract. Exp."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2019.01.052","article-title":"Real-time control architecture based on Xenomai using ROS packages for a service robot","volume":"151","author":"Delgado","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Softw."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6325","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2915921","article-title":"MC-SDN: Supporting Mixed-Criticality Real-Time Communication Using Software-Defined Networking","volume":"6","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-090X(02)00030-X","article-title":"A cooperative multi-agent transportation management and route guidance system","volume":"10","author":"Adler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1851340.1851348","article-title":"Task migration for fault-tolerance in mixed-criticality embedded systems","volume":"6","author":"Saraswat","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM Sigbed Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, H., and Zhu, D. (2013, January 18\u201322). An Elastic Mixed-Criticality task model and its scheduling algorithm. Proceedings of the 2013 Design, Automation Test in Europe Conference Exhibition (DATE), Grenoble, France.","DOI":"10.7873\/DATE.2013.043"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/1926\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:30:17Z","timestamp":1760135417000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/1926"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s22051926"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22051926","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,1]]}}}