{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T23:04:07Z","timestamp":1778195047544,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,5]],"date-time":"2022-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014809","name":"Technology Agency of the Czech Republic","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["project no. TK02030013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["project no. TK02030013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["6G Flagship (grant 318927)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6G Flagship (grant 318927)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MRAT-SafeDrone (decision 341111)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MRAT-SafeDrone (decision 341111)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The last decade has transformed wireless access technologies and crystallized a new direction for the internet of things (IoT). The modern low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies have been introduced to deliver connectivity for billions of devices while keeping the costs and consumption low, and the range of communication high. While the 5G (fifth generation mobile network) LPWAN-like radio technologies, namely NB-IoT (narrowband internet of things) and LTE-M (long-term evolution machine type communication) are emerging, the long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) remains extremely popular. One unique feature of this technology, which distinguishes it from the competitors, is the possibility of supporting both public and private network deployments. In this paper we focus on this aspect and deliver original results comparing the performance of the private and public LoRAWAN deployment options; these results should help understand the LoRaWAN technology and give a clear overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the private versus public approaches. Notably, we carry the comparison along the three dimensions: the communication performance, the security, and the cost analysis. The presented results illustratively demonstrate the differences of the two deployment approaches, and thus can support selection of the most efficient deployment option for a target application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22052042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]],"date-time":"2022-03-06T20:40:02Z","timestamp":1646599202000},"page":"2042","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Insights into the Issue of Deploying a Private LoRaWAN"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8319-0633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Radek","family":"Fujdiak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5518-6629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantin","family":"Mikhaylov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Wireless Communications, University of Oulu, Erkki Koiso-Kanttilan Katu 3, 90014 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3718-415X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Pospisil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7693-9901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ales","family":"Povalac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5023-7757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiri","family":"Misurec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2676589","article-title":"Survey of Promising Technologies for 5G Networks","volume":"2016","author":"Le","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). IoT Connections Outlook, Broadband IoT Set to Overtake 2G and 3G. Available online: https:\/\/www.ericsson.com\/en\/reports-and-papers\/mobility-report\/dataforecasts\/iot-connections-outlook."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phpro.2012.05.104","article-title":"Research on Key Technology and Applications for Internet of Things","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-017-4647-8","article-title":"A Survey of IoT Key Enabling and Future Technologies: 5G, Mobile IoT, Sematic Web and Applications","volume":"97","author":"Goudos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-017-4419-5","article-title":"Sub-GHz LPWAN Network Coexistence, Management and Virtualization: An Overview and Open Research Challenges","volume":"95","author":"Poorter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2016.7721743","article-title":"Long-range communications in unlicensed bands: The rising stars in the IoT and smart city scenarios","volume":"23","author":"Centenaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dedicated networks for IoT: PHY\/MAC state of the art and challenges","volume":"15","author":"Goursaud","year":"2015","journal-title":"EAI Endorsed Trans. Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2017.1600298","article-title":"Narrowband Wireless Access for Low-Power Massive Internet of Things: A Bandwidth Perspective","volume":"24","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600613","article-title":"Understanding the limits of LoRaWAN","volume":"55","author":"Adelantado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.1 Specification, Available online: https:\/\/resources.lora-alliance.org\/technical-specifications\/lorawan-specification-v1-1."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Therdpong, D., and Pana, U. (2021, January 29\u201330). WUTTIDITTACHOTTI, Pongpisit. A Study of 5G Network Performance: A Pilot Field Trial at the Main Skytrain Stations in Bangkok. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Technology (ICAICST), Yogyakarta, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188641","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3030653","article-title":"Building Upon NB-IoT Networks: A Roadmap Towards 5G New Radio Networks","volume":"8","author":"Gbadamosi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.03.004","article-title":"A survey on LPWA technology: Lora and Nb-IOT","volume":"3","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"AlarmNet (2022, February 08). Network Overview. Technical Report. Available online: http:\/\/library.ademconet.com\/MWT\/fs2\/7810IR\/AlarmNet-network-overview.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Seller, O.B.A., and Sornin, N. (2013). Low Power Long Range Transmitter. (EP 2763321 A1), E.U. Patent."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Hornbuckle, C.A. (2007). Fractional-N synthesized chirp generator. (US 7791415 B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 Backend Interfaces 1.0 Specification, Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/lorawantm-backend-interfaces-v1.0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3399669","article-title":"Application domain-based overview of IOT network traffic characteristics","volume":"53","author":"Pekar","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.2000053","article-title":"Routing in LoRaWAN: Overview and Challenges","volume":"58","author":"Osorio","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haxhibeqiri, J., Poorter, E.D., Moerman, I., and Hoebeke, J. (2018). A survey of Lorawan for IOT: From technology to application. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113995"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/IOTM.0001.1900043","article-title":"Internet of Things and LoRaWAN-Enabled Future Smart Farming","volume":"2","author":"Citoni","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things Mag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinto-Erazo, A.M., Su\u00e1rez-Zambrano, L.E., Mediavilla-Valverde, M.M., and Andrade-Guevara, R.E. (2021). Introductory analysis of Lora\/Lorawan Technology in Ecuador. Commun. Smart Technol. Innov. Soc., 547\u2013557.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-4126-8_49"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.12.005","article-title":"A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment","volume":"5","author":"Mekki","year":"2019","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2019.100988","article-title":"Cloud based cyber-physical systems: Network Evaluation Study","volume":"42","author":"Kajati","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Inf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100303","article-title":"Lorawan security survey: Issues, threats and possible mitigation techniques","volume":"12","author":"Noura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2017.2652320","article-title":"Low Power Wide Area Networks: An Overview","volume":"19","author":"Raza","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2015.7263370","article-title":"Understanding the IoT connectivity landscape: A contemporary M2M radio technology roadmap","volume":"53","author":"Andreev","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knyazev, N.S., Chechetkin, V.A., and Letavin, D.A. (2017, January 3\u20134). Comparative analysis of standards for Low-power Wide-area Network. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Systems of Signal Synchronization, Generating and Processing in Telecommunications, Kazan, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SINKHROINFO.2017.7997528"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"9324035","article-title":"Internet of Things: Architectures, Protocols, and Applications","volume":"2017","author":"Sethi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Silva, J.C., Rodrigues, J.J.P.C., Alberti, A.M., Solic, P., and Aquino, A.L.L. (2017, January 12\u201314). LoRaWAN-A Low Power WAN Protocol for Internet of Things: A Review and Opportunities. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Multidisciplinary Conference on Computer and Energy Science, Split, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"CEPT-Electronic Communications Committee (2022, February 08). Recommendation 70\u201303 Relating to the Use of Short Range Devices (SRD), Available online: https:\/\/docdb.cept.org\/download\/25c41779-cd6e\/Rec7003e.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"51","article-title":"Long-range IoT technologies: The dawn of LoRa\u2122","volume":"Volume 159","author":"Atanasovski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Future Access Enablers for Ubiquitous and Intelligent Infrastructures, Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardyn, J., Melly, T., Seller, O., and Sornin, N. (2016, January 12\u201315). IoT: The era of LPWAN is starting now. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 42nd European Solid-State Circuits Conference, Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESSCIRC.2016.7598235"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Semtech Corporation (2022, February 08). AN1200.22: LoRa\u2122 Modulation Basics. Application note. 2015 [Revision 2, May]. Available online: https:\/\/www.frugalprototype.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/an1200.22.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vejlgaard, B., Lauridsen, M., Nguyen, H.C., Mogensen, I.K.P.E., and S\u00f8reosen, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Coverage and Capacity Analysis of Sigfox, LoRa, GPRS, and NB-IoT. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference, Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108666"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seye, M.R., Gueye, B., and Diallo, M. (2017, January 3\u20135). An evaluation of LoRa coverage in Dakar Peninsula. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 8th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMCON.2017.8117211"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petajajarvi, J., Mikhaylov, K., Roivainen, A., Hanninen, T., and Pettissalo, M. (2015, January 2\u20134). On the Coverage of LPWANs: Range Evaluation and Channel Attenuation Model for LoRa Technology. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 14th International conference on ITS Telecommunications, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITST.2015.7377400"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aref, M., and Sikora, A. (2014, January 11\u201312). Free space measurements with Semtech LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 2nd Inernational Symposium on Wireless Systems within the Conferences on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems: Technology and Applications, Odessa, UKraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/IDAACS-SWS.2014.6954616"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barriquello, C.H., Bernardon, D.P., Canha, L.N., Silva, F.E.S., Porto, D.S., and Ramos, M.J.S. (2017, January 28\u201331). Performance assessment of a low power wide area network in rural smart grids. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 52nd International Universities Power Engineering Conference, Heraklion, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/UPEC.2017.8231904"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casals, L., Mir, B., Vidal, R., and Gomez, C. (2017). Modeling the energy performance of LoRaWAN. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102364"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauridsen, M., Nguyen, H., Vejlgaard, B., Kovacs, I.Z., Mogensen, P., and Sorensen, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Coverage Comparison of GPRS, NB-IoT, LoRa, and SigFox in a 7800 km\u00b2 Area. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference, Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108182"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147717699412","article-title":"Performance of a low-power wide-area network based on LoRa technology: Doppler robustness, scalability, and coverage","volume":"13","author":"Petajajarvi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patel, D., and Won, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Experimental Study on Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) for Mobile Internet of Things. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference, Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108501"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petri\u0107, T., Goessens, c., Nuaymi, L., Toutain, L., and Pelov, A. (2016, January 4\u20138). Measurements, performance and analysis of LoRa FABIAN, a real-world implementation of LPWAN. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 27th Annual International Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2016.7794569"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almuhaya, M.A., Jabbar, W.A., Sulaiman, N., and Abdulmalek, S. (2022). A survey on Lorawan technology: Recent trends, opportunities, simulation tools and future directions. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11010164"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2021.108627","article-title":"Correlation between weather and signal strength in Lorawan Networks: An extensive dataset","volume":"202","author":"Goldoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masek, P., Stusek, M., Svertoka, E., Pospisil, J., Burget, R., Lohan, E.S., Marghescu, I., Hosek, J., and Ometov, A. (2021). Measurements of LoRaWAN Technology in Urban Scenarios: A Data Descriptor. Data, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/data6060062"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2021.3063443","article-title":"Beyond the Star of Stars: An Introduction to Multihop and Mesh for LoRa and LoRaWAN","volume":"20","author":"Centelles","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2020.102001","article-title":"Quality-enabled decentralized IOT architecture with efficient resources utilization","volume":"67","author":"Mocnej","year":"2021","journal-title":"Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.008.2100382","article-title":"Multi-RAT for IoT: The Potential in Combining LoRaWAN and NB-IoT","volume":"59","author":"Leenders","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700625","article-title":"Integration of LoRaWAN and 4G\/5G for the Industrial Internet of Things","volume":"56","author":"Sendra","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1109\/IOTM.0001.2000043","article-title":"LoRaWAN in Licensed Access Spectrum? A Techno-Economic Perspective","volume":"3","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things Mag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neumann, P., Montavont, J., and No\u00eble, T. (2016, January 17\u201319). Indoor deployment of low-power wide area networks (LPWAN): A LoRaWAN case study. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 12th International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2016.7763213"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Gregora, L., Vojtech, L., and Neruda, M. (2016, January 7\u20139). Indoor signal propagation of LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 17th International Conference on Mechatronics-Mechatronika, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haxhibeqiri, J., Karaagac, A., Abeele, F.V., Joseph, W., Moerman, I., and Hoebeke, J. (2017, January 12\u201315). LoRa indoor coverage and performance in an industrial environment: Case study. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 22nd International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation, Limassol, Cyprus.","DOI":"10.1109\/ETFA.2017.8247601"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayele, E.D., Hakkenberg, C., Meijers, J.P., Zhang, K., Meratnia, N., and Havinga, P.J.M. (2017, January 10\u201313). Performance analysis of LoRa radio for an indoor IoT applications. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Internet of Things for the Global Community, Funchal, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoTGC.2017.8008973"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s10776-017-0341-8","article-title":"Evaluation of LoRa LPWAN Technology for Indoor Remote Health and Wellbeing Monitoring","volume":"24","author":"Petajajarvi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Wirel. Inf. Netw."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loriot, M., Aljer, A., and Shahrour, I. (2017, January 12\u201314). Analysis of the use of LoRaWan technology in a Large-Scale Smart City Demonstrator. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Sensors Networks Smart and Emerging Technologies, Beiriut, Lebanon.","DOI":"10.1109\/SENSET.2017.8125011"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferre, G. (September, January 28). Collision and Packet Loss Analysis in a LoRaWAN Network. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 25th European Signal Processing Conference, Kos, Greece.","DOI":"10.23919\/EUSIPCO.2017.8081678"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Krupka, L., Vojtech, L., and Neruda, M. (2016, January 7\u20139). The Issue of LPWAN Technology Coexistence in IoT Environment. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 17th International Conference on Mechatronics-Mechatronika, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauridsen, M., Vejlgaard, B., Kovacs, I.Z., Nguyen, H., and Mogensen, P. (2017, January 19\u201322). Interference Measurements in the European 868 MHz ISM Band with Focus on LoRa and SigFox. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2017.7925650"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vejlgaard, B., Lauridsen, M., Nguyen, H., Kovacs, I.Z., Mogensen, P., and Sorensen, M. (2017, January 19\u201322). Interference Impact on Coverage and Capacity for Low Power Wide Area IoT Networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2017.7925510"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Adeunis (2022, February 08). Field Test Device: LoRaWAN Europe EU863-870. Technical Documentation (Version V1.2.1). Available online: https:\/\/www.adeunis.com\/en\/produit\/ftd-868-915-2\/."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korowajczuk, L. (2011). LTE, WiMAX and WLAN Network Design, Optimization and Performance Analysis, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119970460"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.0 Specification, Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/2015_-_lorawan_specification_1r0_611_1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.0.1 Specification. Technical Specification; [Final Release, February]. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/resource_hub\/lorawan-specification-v1-0-1\/."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.0.2 Specification. Technical Specification; [Final Release, July]. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/resource_hub\/lorawan-specification-v1-0-2\/."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.0.3 Specification. Technical Specification; [Final Release, July]. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/resource_hub\/lorawan-specification-v1-0-3\/."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2022, February 08). LoRaWAN\u2122 1.0.4 Specification. Technical Specification; [Final Release, October]. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/resource_hub\/lorawan-104-specification-package\/."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6590713","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6590713","article-title":"A Dual Key-Based Activation Scheme for Secure LoRaWAN","volume":"2017","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aras, E., Ramachandran, G.S., Lawrence, P., and Hughes, D. (2017, January 21\u201323). Exploring the Security Vulnerabilities of LoRa. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Cybernetics, Exeter, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/CYBConf.2017.7985777"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Na, S.J., Shin, D.Y.H.W.S., and Kim, K. (2017, January 11\u201313). Scenario and countermeasure for replay attack using join request messages in LoRaWAN. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Information Networking, Da Nang, Vietnam."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2789121","article-title":"A Secure Device-to-Device Link Establishment Scheme for LoRaWAN","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomasin, S., Zulian, S., and Vangelista, L. (2017, January 19\u201322). Security Analysis of LoRaWAN Join Procedure for Internet of Things Networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference Workshops, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNCW.2017.7919091"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naoui, S., Elhdhili, M.E., and Saidane, L.A. (2016, January 22\u201325). Enhancing the security of the IoT LoraWAN architecture. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Performance Evaluation and Modeling in Wired and Wireless Networks, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEMWN.2016.7842904"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/2042\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:32:40Z","timestamp":1760135560000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/5\/2042"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,5]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s22052042"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22052042","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,5]]}}}