{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T11:01:19Z","timestamp":1762254079506,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]],"date-time":"2022-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014132","name":"EMPIR","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19NRM05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19NRM05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014132","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The distribution network is experiencing a massive deployment of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) such as energy meters, protective devices, and phasor measurement units (PMUs). This phenomenon resulted, on the one hand, in (i) the availability of distributed measurement systems capable of monitoring and collecting measurements from the distribution network, and (ii) increasing awareness of the system operator about the status of the network. On the other hand, such a significant number of devices require to be characterized, over the years, and assessed in both sinusoidal and distorted conditions. However, the characterization process may require a huge investment of money and time considering the low availability of reference instruments and accredited laboratories. To this purpose, this paper presents a simple and fast test procedure, performed with cheap and low-voltage instrumentation, to characterize two off-the-shelf low-power medium-voltage sensors in the power quality frequency range. In detail, the paper describes the measurement setup developed for the characterization and the performed tests. In addition, the method was also reproduced with reference equipment for validation purposes. Lastly, for both tests, an uncertainty evaluation was performed to quantify the goodness of the proposed method. From the results, it is possible to appreciate that the designed cheap and simple test can achieve as accurate results as those of a sophisticated and expensive equipment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22062274","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,16]],"date-time":"2022-03-16T03:36:23Z","timestamp":1647401783000},"page":"2274","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Simplified and Low-Cost Characterization of Medium-Voltage Low-Power Voltage Transformers in the Power Quality Frequency Range"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1739-1277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Mingotti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1572-4549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Betti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3407-2056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Peretto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5377-2421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Tinarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, Guglielmo Marconi Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zavoda, F., Lemire, R., and Abbey, C. (2014, January 14\u201317). Implementing predictive distribution maintenance using a universal controller. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE PES T&D Conference and Exposition, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TDC.2014.6863347"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.08.042","article-title":"Distributed voltage control for active distribution networks based on distribution phasor measurement units","volume":"229","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62102","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3074579","article-title":"Tri-objective optimal PMU placement including accurate state estimation: The case of distribution systems","volume":"9","author":"Andreoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3176","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2018.2878413","article-title":"Unbiased minimum variance filter-based generator state estimation using PMU measurements for unknown generator input","volume":"13","author":"Joseph","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolosok, I., and Korkina, E. (2021, December 15). Refinement of Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit Parameters at Power System State Estimation by PMU Data. Available online: https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007\/978-3-030-39225-3_62.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-39225-3_62"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Apostolopoulos, C.A., Arsoniadis, C.G., Georgilakis, P.S., and Nikolaidis, V.C. (2021, January 6\u20138). Evaluating a Fault Location Algorithm for Active Distribution Systems Utilizing Two-Point Synchronized or Unsynchronized Measurements. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Smart Energy Systems and Technologies (SEST), Vaasa, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/SEST50973.2021.9543370"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"20200093","article-title":"Optimal fault location for power distribution systems with distributed generations using synchronized measurements","volume":"21","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Emerg. Electr. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mingotti, A., Ghaderi, A., Mazzanti, G., Peretto, L., Tinarelli, R., Valtorta, G., and Danesi, S. (2018, January 26\u201328). Low-cost monitoring unit for MV cable joints diagnostics. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 9th International Workshop on Applied Measurements for Power Systems (AMPS), Bologna, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMPS.2018.8494848"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, P., Byerly, K., Buric, M., Zandhuis, P., Sun, C., Leary, A., and Ohodnicki, P.R. (2017, January 18). Distributed fiber-optic sensor for real-time monitoring of energized transformer cores. Proceedings of the SPIE Security + Defence, Anaheim, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2263387"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5975","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.3010669","article-title":"A multiprobe inductive coupling method for online impedance measurement of electrical devices distributed in multibranch cables","volume":"69","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Douglin, R.H., Ituzaro, F.A., and Butler-Purry, K.L. (2012, January 22\u201326). Using smart meter data to improve the performance of the overcurrent protective devices in distribution systems with DG. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PESGM.2012.6345251"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel-Majeed, A., and Braun, M. (2012, January 31). Low voltage system state estimation using smart meters. Proceedings of the 47th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), Uxbridge, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/UPEC.2012.6398598"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052032","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1065\/5\/052032","article-title":"Performance evaluation of an energy meter for low-voltage system monitoring","volume":"1065","author":"Bartolomei","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2008.2009184","article-title":"A simple method for the calibration of traditional and electronic measurement current and voltage transformers","volume":"58","author":"Brandolini","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsr.2014.10.009","article-title":"Practical approach to evaluation of accuracy of inductive current transformer for transformation of distorted current higher harmonics","volume":"119","author":"Kaczmarek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Electr. Power Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2800","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2871229","article-title":"Overcoming Frequency Response Measurements of Voltage Transformers: An Approach Based on Quasi-Sinusoidal Volterra Models","volume":"68","author":"Faifer","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Budovsky, I. (2020, January 24\u201328). Calibration of precision current transformers and AC resistors by comparison using two sampling digital voltmeters. Proceedings of the Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements (CPEM), Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CPEM49742.2020.9191713"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mingotti, A., Peretto, L., Tinarelli, R., and Zhang, J. (2019, January 4\u20136). Use of COMTRADE Fault Current Data to Test Inductive Current Transformers. Proceedings of the 2019 II Workshop on Metrology for Industry 4.0 and IoT (MetroInd4.0&IoT), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/METROI4.2019.8792871"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crotti, G., Gallo, D., Giordano, D., Landi, C., and Luiso, M. (2014, January 24\u201326). Non-conventional instrument current transformer test set for industrial applications. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Workshop on Applied Measurements for Power Systems Proceedings (AMPS), Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMPS.2014.6947699"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mingotti, A., Peretto, L., and Tinarelli, R. (2020). Smart characterization of rogowski coils by using a synthetized signal. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123359"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crotti, G., Gallo, D., Giordano, D., Landi, C., Luiso, M., Cherbaucich, C., and Mazza, P. (2014, January 12\u201315). Low cost measurement equipment for the accurate calibration of voltage and current transducers. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC) Proceedings, Montevideo, Uruguay.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2014.6860735"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Letizia, P.S., Crotti, G., Giordano, D., Delle Femine, A., Gallo, D., Landi, C., and Luiso, M. (2019, January 20\u201323). Low Cost Procedure for Frequency Characterization of Voltage Instrument Transformers. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2019.8827018"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolacell, G.S., Venturini, L.F., and Da Rosa, M.A. (2018, January 24\u201328). Distribution System Reliability Evaluation Considering Power Quality Effects. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems (PMAPS), Boise, ID, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PMAPS.2018.8440396"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratanatanyong, S., Chalermwai, A., Kanchanachinto, T., Chantabutr, S., Wasanapradit, T., and Chigbo, I. (2020, January 9). A novel investigation of power quality effects on premature ESP failures. Proceedings of the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.2118\/203329-MS"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2016). Instrument Transformers\u2014The Use of Instrument Transformers for Power Quality Measurement. Standard No. IEC TR 61869-103:2012."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2010). Instrument Transformers\u2014Part 1: General Requirements. Standard No. IEC 61869-1:2010."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2016). Part 6: Additional General Requirements for Low-Power Instrument Transformers. In Instrument Transformers. Standard No. IEC 61869-6."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2015). Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by Public Electricity Networks. Standard No. BS EN 50160:2010+A1."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2008). Uncertainty of Measurement\u2014Part 3: Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM: 1995). Standard No. ISO\/IEC Guide 98-3: 2008."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2008). Evaluation of Measurement Data\u2014Supplement 1 to the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement\u2014Propagation of Distributions Using a Monte Carlo Method. Standard No. Supplement 1 BIPM JCGM 101:2008."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2867966","article-title":"Uncertainty bounds of transmission line parameters estimated from synchronized measurements","volume":"68","author":"Asprou","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRS.2020.3036605","article-title":"Instrument transformer calibration and robust estimation of transmission line parameters using PMU measurements","volume":"36","author":"Goklani","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cataliotti, A., Cosentino, V., Telaretti, E., Di Cara, D., and Tine, G. (2015, January 11\u201314). Uncertainty evaluation of a Backward\/Forward load flow algorithm for a MV smart grid. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC) Proceedings, Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2015.7151457"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2019.2917694","article-title":"A general easy-to-use expression for uncertainty evaluation in residual voltage measurement","volume":"69","author":"Mingotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3450","DOI":"10.1049\/gtd2.12254","article-title":"Zero-sequence current measurement uncertainty in three-phase power systems during normal operation","volume":"15","author":"Nauta","year":"2021","journal-title":"IET Gener. Transm. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052041","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1065\/5\/052041","article-title":"Uncertainty sources analysis of a calibration system for the accuracy vs. temperature verification of voltage transformers","volume":"1065","author":"Mingotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.21014\/acta_imeko.v10i2.918","article-title":"Metrological characterisation of current transformers calibration unit for accurate measurement","volume":"10","author":"Isaiev","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta IMEKO"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/6\/2274\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:37:05Z","timestamp":1760135825000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/6\/2274"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s22062274"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22062274","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]]}}}