{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T06:25:33Z","timestamp":1761719133869,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]],"date-time":"2022-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2019YFB1312202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFB1312202"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Industrial control systems (ICS) are applied in many fields. Due to the development of cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and big data analysis inducing more cyberattacks, ICS always suffers from the risks. If the risks occur during system operations, corporate capital is endangered. It is crucial to assess the security of ICS dynamically. This paper proposes a dynamic assessment framework for industrial control system security (DAF-ICSS) based on machine learning and takes an industrial robot system as an example. The framework conducts security assessment from qualitative and quantitative perspectives, combining three assessment phases: static identification, dynamic monitoring, and security assessment. During the evaluation, we propose a weighted Hidden Markov Model (W-HMM) to dynamically establish the system\u2019s security model with the algorithm of Baum\u2013Welch. To verify the effectiveness of DAF-ICSS, we have compared it with two assessment methods to assess industrial robot security. The comparison result shows that the proposed DAF-ICSS can provide a more accurate assessment. The assessment reflects the system\u2019s security state in a timely and intuitive manner. In addition, it can be used to analyze the security impact caused by the unknown types of ICS attacks since it infers the security state based on the explicit state of the system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072593","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T21:45:51Z","timestamp":1648590351000},"page":"2593","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A Three-Stage Dynamic Assessment Framework for Industrial Control System Security Based on a Method of W-HMM"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3619-3417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xudong","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Hongxing","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Youdong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Xiao-Fang","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Guo","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2017.09.017","article-title":"Security for the robot operating system","volume":"98","author":"Dieber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11465-019-0563-9","article-title":"Towards a next-generation production system for industrial robots: A CPS-based hybrid architecture for smart assembly shop floors with closed-loop dynamic cyber physical interactions","volume":"15","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.18502\/keg.v3i9.3648","article-title":"Implementation of a Remote Control and Monitoring System in Assembly Processes with Industrial Robot Kawasaki Rs003 Through the GSM Network in the Industrial Automation Laboratory of the Faculty of Mechanics","volume":"3","author":"Cevallos","year":"2018","journal-title":"KnE Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17419","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2966764","article-title":"Data Logic Attack on Heavy-Duty Industrial Manipulators","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-4858(19)30122-9","article-title":"Cyber security attacks on robotic platforms","volume":"2019","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Netw. Secur."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26754","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2773127","article-title":"Working together: A review on safe human-robot collaboration in industrial environments","volume":"5","author":"Becerra","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-017-0382-0","article-title":"A framework for estimating information security risk assessment method completeness","volume":"17","author":"Wangen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10311","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2800664","article-title":"An improved information security risk assessments method for cyber-physical-social computing and networking","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1145\/274790.274326","article-title":"A robot laboratory for teaching artificial intelligence","volume":"30","author":"Kumar","year":"1998","journal-title":"ACM SIGCSE Bull."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-017-9809-4","article-title":"A markov-based model for information security risk assessment in healthcare MANETs","volume":"21","author":"Das","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Front."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1177\/1460458219832048","article-title":"Information security climate and the assessment of information security risk among healthcare employees","volume":"26","author":"Kessler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Inform. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.15388\/Informatica.2019.203","article-title":"Information security risk assessment in critical infrastructure: A hybrid MCDM approach","volume":"30","author":"Turskis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Informatica"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3040","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-gtd.2018.5806","article-title":"Assessment of power system security using Security Information Index","volume":"13","author":"Manickavasagam","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Gener. Transm. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Zheng, X., and Sun, Z. (2020). Coal resource security assessment in China: A study using entropy-weight-based TOPSIS and BP neural network. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12062294"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2017.09.002","article-title":"A weighted fuzzy Petri-net based approach for security risk assessment in the chemical industry","volume":"174","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2016.11.016","article-title":"Understanding industrial safety: Comparing Fault tree, Bayesian network, and FRAM approaches","volume":"45","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Li, H., Wei, Z., Dong, S., and Zhang, Z. (2019, January 15\u201317). Summary of research on IT network and industrial control network security assessment. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 3rd Information Technology, Networking, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (ITNEC), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITNEC.2019.8729052"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2020.03.007","article-title":"Industrial control systems: Cyberattack trends and countermeasures","volume":"155","author":"Alladi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163209","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3020310","article-title":"An energy proficient load balancing routing scheme for wireless sensor networks to maximize their lifespan in an operational environment","volume":"8","author":"Adil","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AlMedires, M., and AlMaiah, M. (2021, January 14\u201315). Cybersecurity in Industrial Control System (ICS). Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT52682.2021.9491741"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaukat, K., Luo, S., Varadharajan, V., Hameed, I.A., Chen, S., Liu, D., and Li, J. (2020). Performance comparison and current challenges of using machine learning techniques in cybersecurity. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13102509"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148510","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3015941","article-title":"An efficient load balancing scheme of energy gauge nodes to maximize the lifespan of constraint oriented networks","volume":"8","author":"Adil","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratnayake, R.C. (2019, January 15\u201319). Consequence classification based spare parts evaluation and control in the petroleum industry. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), Macao, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEM44572.2019.8978802"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adil, M., Almaiah, M.A., Omar Alsayed, A., and Almomani, O. (2020). An anonymous channel categorization scheme of edge nodes to detect jamming attacks in wireless sensor networks. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082311"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2015.09.009","article-title":"A review of cyber security risk assessment methods for SCADA systems","volume":"56","author":"Cherdantseva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anucene.2020.107432","article-title":"A quantitative assessment framework for cyber-attack scenarios on nuclear power plants using relative difficulty and consequence","volume":"142","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Nucl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, H., Su, J., Zong, X., and Yan, L. (2017, January 21\u201323). Attack identification for software-defined networking based on attack trees and extension innovation methods. Proceedings of the 2017 9th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems: Technology and Applications (IDAACS), Bucharest, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/IDAACS.2017.8095128"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3574675","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3574675","article-title":"Information security risk assessment method for ship control system based on fuzzy sets and attack trees","volume":"2019","author":"Shang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1431","article-title":"I-HMM-Based Multidimensional Network Security Risk Assessment","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Abbr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2013.2294628","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of safety and security of system architectures for cyberphysical systems using the NFR approach","volume":"10","author":"Subramanian","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2018.12.008","article-title":"An ontology-based methodology for hazard identification and causation analysis","volume":"123","author":"Aziz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, Y., Yan, L., Sun, W., Zhang, Q., and Wang, N. (2018, January 10\u201311). Discussion on Risk Assessment of Network Security Management. Proceedings of the 2018 10th International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation (ICMTMA), Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMTMA.2018.00106"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, Z., Hou, Y., Yang, H., Li, M., Wang, B., and Guo, Q. (2019, January 24\u201326). Research and implementation of intelligent substation information security risk assessment tool. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 8th Joint International Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence Conference (ITAIC), Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITAIC.2019.8785820"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Zhu, H., Chen, Z., Cai, X., and Yang, L. (2019, January 11\u201312). A Security Evaluation Model Based on Fuzzy Hierarchy Analysis for Industrial Cyber-Physical Control Systems. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Internet (ICII), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICII.2019.00022"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Datta, S.K. (2020, January 26\u201327). DRAFT-A Cybersecurity Framework for IoT Platforms. Proceedings of the 2020 Zooming Innovation in Consumer Technologies Conference (ZINC), Novi Sad, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ZINC50678.2020.9161441"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s11235-016-0168-0","article-title":"Security assessment framework for IoT service","volume":"64","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Telecommun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900656","article-title":"Smart contract vulnerability analysis and security audit","volume":"34","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2017.2751478","article-title":"Real-time multistep attack prediction based on hidden markov models","volume":"17","author":"Holgado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Tu, S. (2022, March 01). Derivation of Baum-Welch Algorithm for Hidden Markov Models. Available online: Https:\/\/people.eecs.berkeley.edu\/~stephentu\/writeups\/hmm-baum-welch-derivation.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2018.05.018","article-title":"A multi-experts and multi-criteria risk assessment model for safety risks in oil and gas industry integrating risk attitudes","volume":"156","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1630","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-019-01500-7","article-title":"Network risk assessment based on baum welch algorithm and HMM","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mob. Netw. Appl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2021.105292","article-title":"Novel methodology for developing a safety standard based on clustering of experts\u2019 assessments of safety requirements","volume":"140","author":"Aly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Budiyanto, M.A., and Fernanda, H. (2020). Risk assessment of work accident in container terminals using the fault tree analysis method. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8060466"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2593\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:45:22Z","timestamp":1760136322000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2593"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s22072593"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22072593","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]}}}