{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T18:52:01Z","timestamp":1770144721210,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648512000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31670999"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31670999"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A direct ventricular assist device is one of the effective means to treat patients with heart failure; the key point of the problem is the flexible sensor that can measure the drive pressure and shape variable of the heart auxiliary device. This study was based on the high-voltage electric field guidance process and the porous foaming process, and designed an implantable resistance\/capacitive composite flexible sensor that can effectively detect the pressure and deformation signal caused by fine surface contact and pneumatic muscle expansion. Experiments showed the performance of composite sensors with special structure design was greatly improved compared with the control group\u2014the strain measurement sensitivity was 22, pressure measurement sensitivity was up to 0.19 Kpa\u22121. Stable strain measurements were made up to 35 times and pressure measurements over 100 times. In addition, we solved the interference problem of resistance\/capacitance flexible sensors through an optimized common substrate process. Finally, we tested a pneumatic muscle direct ventricular assist device with a composite flexible sensor on a model heart; the experiment showed that this resistance\/capacitive composite flexible sensor can effectively detect surface contact with pneumatic muscle and the displacement signals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T21:45:51Z","timestamp":1648590351000},"page":"2607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A Composite Flexible Sensor for Direct Ventricular Assist Device"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4455-5967","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhong","family":"Yun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7332-0588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuibing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7972-1921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyan","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1097\/MAT.0000000000000401","article-title":"A Case Series of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Left Ventricular Assist Device-Supported Patients","volume":"63","author":"Godishala","year":"2017","journal-title":"ASAIO J."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"111","article-title":"Direct Mechanical Ventricular Assistance","volume":"10","author":"Weimin","year":"2002","journal-title":"PJCCPVD"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2016.10.085","article-title":"Bridge to durable left ventricular assist device for refractory cardiogenic shock","volume":"153","author":"Yoshioka","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1093\/ejcts\/ezx088","article-title":"Short-term mechanical circulatory support as a bridge to durable left ventricular assist device implantation in refractory cardiogenic shock: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Akin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"662","article-title":"Hydraulic design of a double suction blood pump","volume":"51","author":"Aimin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Tsing Hua Univ."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"72","article-title":"Prolonged circulatory support by direct mechanical ventricular assistance","volume":"12","author":"Anstadt","year":"1966","journal-title":"Trans.-Am. Soc. Artif. Intern. Organs"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaf3925","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaf3925","article-title":"Soft robotic sleeve supports heart function","volume":"9","author":"Roche","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-2005-13402","article-title":"Non-blood contacting electro-hydraulic artificial myocardium (eham) improves the myocardial tissue perfusion","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Technol. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"4","article-title":"Study on Phase Angle of Blood Pump Control System Driven by Large Gap Magnetic Field","volume":"4","author":"Tan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.12.001","article-title":"Increasing trend of wearables and multimodal interface for human activity monitoring: A review","volume":"90","author":"Kumari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9195","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5b01608","article-title":"Novel graphene foam composite with adjustable sensitivity for sensor applications","volume":"7","author":"Samad","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8266","DOI":"10.1039\/C7NR01862B","article-title":"Self-adapted and tunable graphene strain sensors for detecting both subtle and large human motions","volume":"9","author":"Tao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6307","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201400334","article-title":"Embedded 3D printing of strain sensors within highly stretchable elastomers","volume":"26","author":"Muth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2639","article-title":"High performance piezoelectric devices based on aligned arrays of nanofibers of poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-trifluoroethylene)","volume":"4","author":"Persano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4507","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b08027","article-title":"Flexible Piezoelectric-Induced Pressure Sensors for Static Measurements Based on Nanowires\/Graphene Heterostructures","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1007\/s13204-019-01032-2","article-title":"Functional nanocomposites for 3D printing of stretchable and wearable sensors","volume":"9","author":"Abshirini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Nanosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201401207","article-title":"Microstructured graphene arrays for highly sensitive flexible tactile sensors","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b12415","article-title":"Highly Stretchable, Hysteresis-Free Ionic Liquid-Based Strain Sensor for Precise Human Motion Monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Choi","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2019.111608","article-title":"A simple and cost-effective method for improving the sensitivity of flexible strain sensors based on conductive polymer composites","volume":"298","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2012.01.067","article-title":"The alignment of single walled carbon nanotubes in an epoxy resin by applying a DC electric field","volume":"50","author":"Monti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17499","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b06119","article-title":"Wearable Resistive Pressure Sensor Based on Highly Flexible Carbon Composite Conductors with Irregular Surface Morphology","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201470054","article-title":"Electronic skin: Silk-molded flexible, ultrasensitive, and highly stable electronic skin for monitoring human physiological signals","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat2834","article-title":"Highly sensitive flexible pressure sensors with microstructured rubber dielectric layers","volume":"9","author":"Mannsfeld","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2789242","article-title":"Influence of Permittivity on the Sensitivity of Porous Elastomer-Based Capacitive Pressure Sensors","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Lo, P.H., Hong, C., Tseng, S.H., Yeh, J.H., and Fang, W. (February, January 29). Implementation of vertical-integrated dual mode inductive-capacitive proximity sensor. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/23\/3\/035013","article-title":"Development of a proximity sensor with vertically monolithic integrated inductive and capacitive sensing units","volume":"23","author":"Lo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Micromechan. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2030660","article-title":"Dual-Mode Capacitive Proximity Sensor for Robot Application: Implementation of Tactile and Proximity Sensing Capability on a Single Polymer Platform Using Shared Electrodes","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"H1404","article-title":"A new method to measure regional myocardial time-varying elastance using minute vibration","volume":"274","author":"Shishido","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2607\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:45:34Z","timestamp":1760136334000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2607"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s22072607"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22072607","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]}}}