{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:59:45Z","timestamp":1760151585106,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648598400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Grant No. 41807265, No. 41972286"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant No. 41807265, No. 41972286"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Blasting Engineering Foundation","award":["Grant No. HKLBEF202001 and No. HKLBEF202002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant No. HKLBEF202001 and No. HKLBEF202002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We propose a mechanical learning method that can be used to predict stability coefficients for slopes where slopes with predetermined shear planes are subjected to cyclic seismic loads under undrained conditions. Firstly, shear tests with cyclic loading of different parameters were simulated on designated slip zone soil specimens, in which the strain softening process leading to landslide occurrence was closely observed. At the same time, based on the limit equilibrium analysis of the Sarma method, the variation of slope stability coefficients under different cyclic loads was investigated. Finally, a Box\u2013Jenkins\u2019 modeling approach is used to predict the data from the time series of slope stability coefficients using a mechanical learning approach. The simulation results show that (1) reduction in coordination number can be an accurate indicator of the level of strain softening and evolutionary processes; (2) the gradual reduction of shear stress facilitates the soil strain softening process, while different cyclic loading stress amplitudes will result in rapid penetration or non-penetration of the fracture zone by means of particulate flow. Although the confining pressure of the slip zone soil can inhibit the increase of fractures, it has a limited inhibitory effect on strain softening; (3) based on field observations of the slope stability factor and stress field, two possible landslide triggering mechanisms are described. (4) Mechanical learning of time series can accurately predict the changing pattern of stability coefficients of slopes without loading. This study establishes a potential bridge between the geological investigation of landslides and the theoretical background of landslide stability coefficient prediction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072647","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T21:28:39Z","timestamp":1648675719000},"page":"2647","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Slope with Predetermined Shear Plane Stability Predictions under Cyclic Loading with Innovative Time Series Analysis by Mechanical Learning Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5314-2166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingyao","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CCCC Second Highway Consultants Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430056, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2709-840X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nan","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chuanbo","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuedong","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Werner, E.D., and Friedman, H.P. (2010). Landslides: Causes, Types and Effects, Nova Science Pub. Incorporated."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02590167","article-title":"A simple definition of a landslide","volume":"43","author":"Cruden","year":"1991","journal-title":"Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01254-z","article-title":"Mass movement and formation process analysis of the two sequential landslide dam events in Jinsha River, Southwest China","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2624547","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/2624547","article-title":"Displacement prediction of a complex landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (China) using a hybrid computational intelligence approach","volume":"2020","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.03.016","article-title":"Spatial and temporal analysis of a global landslide catalog","volume":"249","author":"Kirschbaum","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1193\/1.2173021","article-title":"Landslides triggered by the 2004 Niigata ken Chuetsu, Japan, earthquake","volume":"22","author":"Kieffer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Earthq. Spectra"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2005.10.006","article-title":"Geological and geomorphological characteristics of landslides triggered by the 2004 Mid Niigta prefecture earthquake in Japan","volume":"82","author":"Chigira","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01187-7","article-title":"Coseismic landslides triggered by the 2018 Hokkaido, Japan (Mw 6.6), earthquake: Spatial distribution, controlling factors, and possible failure mechanism","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3208\/sandf.45.4_149","article-title":"Landslides during the earthquakes on May 26 And July 26, 2003 in Miyagi, Japan","volume":"45","author":"Uzuoka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soils Found."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2005.08.004","article-title":"Landslides in Sado Island of Japan: Part II. GIS-based susceptibility mapping with comparisons of results from two methods and verifications","volume":"81","author":"Ayalew","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.06.004","article-title":"LiDAR-derived DEM evaluation of deep-seated landslides in a steep and rocky region of Japan","volume":"113","author":"Kasai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Strait, T. (2022, January 20). Death Toll from Hokkaido Quake Hits 44, Power SUPPLY and Toyota Output Disrupted. Available online: https:\/\/www.straitstimes.com\/asia\/east-asia\/death-toll-from-hokkaido-quake-hits-44-power-supply-and-toyota-output-disrupted."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Evans, S. (2022, January 20). Japan May Face Billion Dollar Losses from Typhoon Jebi, Hokkaido Quake. Available online: https:\/\/www.artemis.bm\/news\/japan-may-face-billion-dollar-losses-from-typhoon-jebi-hokkaido-quake\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-19-1789-2019","article-title":"How size and trigger matter: Analyzing rainfall- and earthquake-triggered landslide inventories and their causal relation in the Koshi River basin, central Himalaya","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Hazard Earth Sys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Collins, M., Knutti, R., Arblaster, J., Dufresne, J.L., Fichefet, T., Friedlingstein, P., Gao, X., Gutowski, W., Johns, T., and Krinner, G. (2013). Chapter 12-Long-term climate change: Projections, commitments and irreversibility. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, IPCC Working Group I Contribution to AR5, Cambridge University Press(Pub)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2010.04.009","article-title":"Deciphering the effect of climate change on landslide activity:a review","volume":"124","author":"Crozier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"D4","article-title":"Future change of precipitation extremes in Europe: Intercomparison of scenarios from regional climate models","volume":"111","author":"Frei","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Resatmos."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"85","article-title":"\u00d0lope stability and failure hazards in the light of complex geological surveys","volume":"26","author":"Gawriuczenkow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rev. Eng. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1515\/geo-2019-0017","article-title":"Selected components of geological structures and numerical modelling of slope stability","volume":"11","author":"Kaczmarek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Geosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-022-02618-x","article-title":"Research on the collapse process of a thick-layer dangerous rock on the reservoir bank","volume":"81","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"76","article-title":"Landslide triggering mechanisms. In: Turner, Shuster(eds) Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation","volume":"247","author":"Wieczorek","year":"1996","journal-title":"Res. Board Natl. Res. Counc. Spec. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2008.12.016","article-title":"Localization properties of strain-softening gradient plasticity models. Part I: Strain-gradient theories","volume":"46","author":"Rolshoven","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JF003088","article-title":"Residual shear strength variability as a primary control on movement of landslides reactivated by earthquake-induced ground motion: Implications for coastal Oregon, U.S","volume":"119","author":"Schulz","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4017043","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000917","article-title":"Cyclic Triaxial Test to Measure Strain-Dependent Shear Modulus of Unsaturated Sand","volume":"17","author":"Ghayoomi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4014082","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000431","article-title":"Undrained Pore Pressure Prediction in Clayey Soil under Cyclic Loading","volume":"15","author":"Paul","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213427","DOI":"10.1117\/12.7972925","article-title":"Digital imaging techniques in experimental stress analysis","volume":"21","author":"Peters","year":"1982","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1080\/12269328.2014.998346","article-title":"The bonded-particle model as a tool for rock mechanics research and application: Current trends and future directions","volume":"18","author":"Potyondy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geosystem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-019-01225-2","article-title":"Effect of fabric on the accuracy of computed tomography-based finite element analyses of the vertebra","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechanobiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshibli, K., Alshibli, K., and Reed, A. (2010). Advances in Computed Tomography for Geomaterials GeoX 2010, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118557723"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40677-020-00157-9","article-title":"Geotechnical investigations of an earthquake that triggered disastrous landslides in eastern Canada about 1020 Cal BP","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geoenviron. Disasters"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Tatard, L. (2010). Statistical Analysis of Triggered Landslides: Implication for Earthquake and Weather Controls, Universit\u00e9 Joseph-Fourier-Grenoble."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(99)00042-2","article-title":"A view on some hydrological triggering systems in landslides","volume":"30","author":"Asch","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-017-2744-3","article-title":"Empirical correlation of SPT blow counts versus shear wave velocity for different types of soils in Dholera, Western India","volume":"86","author":"Thokchom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards J. Int. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1080\/10286608.2019.1568418","article-title":"Landslide susceptibility modelling using different advanced decision trees methods","volume":"35","author":"Thai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. Environ. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2020.10.009","article-title":"Spatial prediction of landslide susceptibility in western Serbia using hybrid support vector regression (SVR) with GWO, BAT and COA algorithms","volume":"12","author":"Balogun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.104751","article-title":"A comparative evaluation of supervised machine learning algorithms for township level landslide susceptibility zonation in parts of Indian Himalayas","volume":"195","author":"Peethambaran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-007-1161-4","article-title":"Slope stability analysis: A support vector machine approach","volume":"56","author":"Samui","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"3087","article-title":"Quantitatively evaluating the effects of prior probability distribution and likelihood function models on slope reliability assessment","volume":"41","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rock Soil Mech."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0341-8162(76)90011-4","article-title":"A prediction model of landslips","volume":"3","author":"Neuland","year":"1976","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2009.10.016","article-title":"Landslide susceptibility assessment and factor effect analysis: Backpropagation artificial neural networks and their comparison with frequency ratio and bivariate logistic regression modelling","volume":"25","author":"Pradhan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1108\/02644401111118132","article-title":"A robust data mining approach for formulation of geotechnical engineering systems","volume":"28","author":"Alavi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Martins, F.F., and Miranda, T.F.S. (2010). Application of data mining techniques to the safety evaluation of slopes. Information Technology in Geo-Engineering: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference (ICITG), IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2014.08.021","article-title":"An evolution model of large consequent bedding rockslides, with particular reference to the Jiweishan rockslide in Southwest China","volume":"186","author":"Tang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2020.105766","article-title":"A shear constitutive model for describing the full process of the deformation and failure of slip zone soil","volume":"276","author":"Zou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1007\/s10035-012-0367-7","article-title":"A discrete model for simulating shear strength and deformation behavior of rockfill material, considering the particle breakage phenomenon","volume":"14","author":"Alaei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Granul. Matter."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2004.09.011","article-title":"A bonded-particle model for rock","volume":"41","author":"Potyondy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Ences"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(Itasca, PFC, 2014). Itasca, PFC, Version 5.0."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000037","article-title":"Seismic rotational displacements of gravity walls by pseudodynamic method with curved rupture surface","volume":"10","author":"Basha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2008.01.006","article-title":"Computation of sliding displacements of bridge abutments by pseudo-dynamic method","volume":"29","author":"Basha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2009.12.007","article-title":"Reliability assessment of internal stability of reinforced soil structures: A pseudo-dynamic approach","volume":"30","author":"Basha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2021.106025","article-title":"Brittle fracturing in low-porosity rock and implications to fault nucleation","volume":"285","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2015.04.008","article-title":"A grain based modeling study of fracture branching during compression tests in granites","volume":"77","author":"Hofmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J.W., Wang, Y.K., Niu, X.X., Jiang, S., and Liu, Z.Y. (2022). A comparative study of mutual information-based input variable selection strategies for the displacement prediction of seepage-driven landslides using optimized support vector regression. Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess., 1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00477-022-02183-5"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127097","article-title":"Microcracking mechanisms of cyclic freeze\u2013thaw treated red sandstone: Insights from acoustic emission and thin-section analysis","volume":"329","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2647\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:46:24Z","timestamp":1760136384000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/7\/2647"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s22072647"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22072647","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]]}}}