{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T03:03:08Z","timestamp":1760151788735,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]],"date-time":"2022-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["12104298","12192252","11764020","11974245"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12104298","12192252","11764020","11974245"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The laser is considered one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Biolasers employ high signal-to-noise ratio lasing emission rather than regular fluorescence as the sensing signal, directional out-coupling of lasing and excellent biocompatibility. Meanwhile, biolasers can also be micro-sized or smaller lasers with embedded\/integrated biological materials. This article presents the progress in biolasers, focusing on the work done over the past years, including the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organism levels. Furthermore, biolasers have been utilized and explored for broad applications in biosensing, labeling, tracking, bioimaging, and biomedical development due to a number of unique advantages. Finally, we provide the possible directions of biolasers and their applications in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,21]],"date-time":"2022-04-21T03:46:11Z","timestamp":1650512771000},"page":"3149","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Monitoring Various Bioactivities at the Molecular, Cellular, Tissue, and Organism Levels via Biological Lasers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2632-8218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongrui","family":"Shan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1301-7448","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hailang","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7574-2047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianfeng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Light Manipulations and Applications, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.4344","article-title":"Assessing phototoxicity in live fluorescence imaging","volume":"14","author":"Laissue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022003","DOI":"10.1088\/2050-6120\/aaae0c","article-title":"An introduction to optical super-resolution microscopy for the adventurous biologist","volume":"6","author":"Vangindertael","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methods Appl. Fluoresc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-018-0251-8","article-title":"Super-resolution microscopy demystified","volume":"21","author":"Schermelleh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1127344","article-title":"Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution","volume":"313","author":"Betzig","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(10)75005-9","article-title":"Single-Particle Tracking Photoactivated Localization Microscopy for Mapping Single-Molecule Dynamics","volume":"475","author":"Manley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.1002\/cphc.201100986","article-title":"STED microscopy and its applications: New insights into cellular processes on the nanoscale","volume":"13","author":"Schumann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chemphyschem"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.4593","article-title":"STED super-resolved microscopy","volume":"15","author":"Vicidomini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.13257","article-title":"Stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) in comparison with stimulated emission depletion (STED) and other imaging methods","volume":"135","author":"Tam","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-018-0211-z","article-title":"Author Correction: Faster, sharper, and deeper: Structured illumination microscopy for biological imaging","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.09.057","article-title":"Visualizing intracellular organelle and cytoskeletal interactions at nanoscale resolution on millisecond timescales","volume":"175","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167a","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2018.11.928","article-title":"4D cell biology: Big data image analytics and lattice light-sheet imaging reveal dynamics of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in stem cell-derived intestinal organoids","volume":"116","author":"Dambournet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-14731-0","article-title":"Whole-cell imaging of plasma membrane receptors by 3D lattice light-sheet dSTORM","volume":"11","author":"Wldchen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1784","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.305078.117","article-title":"Dense Bicoid hubs accentuate binding along the morphogen gradient","volume":"31","author":"Mir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232251","article-title":"Actin, spectrin, and associated proteins form a periodic cytoskeletal structure in axons","volume":"339","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"035008","article-title":"Super-resolution imaging and estimation of protein copy numbers at single synapses with DNA-point accumulation for imaging in nanoscale topography","volume":"6","author":"Bger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27744","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.27744","article-title":"Super-resolution imaging of synaptic and Extra-synaptic AMPA receptors with different-sized fluorescent probes","volume":"6","author":"Hak","year":"2017","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-016-0296-5","article-title":"Super-resolution microscopy reveals \u03b3-secretase at both sides of the neuronal synapse","volume":"4","author":"Caesar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257998","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1257998","article-title":"Lattice light-sheet microscopy: Imaging molecules to embryos at high spatiotemporal resolution","volume":"346","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3418","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e16-03-0164","article-title":"Membrane dynamics of dividing cells imaged by lattice light-sheet microscopy","volume":"27","author":"Aguet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2018). Macropinosome formation by tent pole ruffling in macrophages. J. Cell Biol., 217, 3873\u20133885.","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201804137"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L01","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2013.05.029","article-title":"Coaligned dual-channel STED nanoscopy and molecular diffusion analysis at 20 nm resolution","volume":"105","author":"GoTtfert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17565","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0506010102","article-title":"Breaking the diffraction barrier in fluorescence microscopy at low light intensities by using reversibly photoswitchable proteins","volume":"102","author":"Hofmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1952","article-title":"A reversibly photoswitchable GFP-like protein with fluorescence excitation decoupled from switching","volume":"29","author":"Brakemann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aak9913","article-title":"Nanometer resolution imaging and tracking of fluorescent molecules with minimal photon fluxes","volume":"355","author":"Balzarotti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2011). Dempsey; Graham; Vaughan; Joshua; Chen; Kok; Hao; Bates Evaluation of fluorophores for optimal performance in localization-based super-resolution imaging. Nat. Methods, 8, 1027\u20131036.","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.1768"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3290","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201511018","article-title":"Fluorescent rhodamines and fluorogenic carbopyronines for super-resolution STED microscopy in living cells","volume":"55","author":"Butkevich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10778","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10778","article-title":"Two-colour live-cell nanoscale imaging of intracellular targets","volume":"7","author":"Bottanelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46492","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46492","article-title":"Multicolour nanoscopy of fixed and living cells with a single STED beam and hyperspectral detection","volume":"7","author":"Winter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.2534","article-title":"The transience of transient overexpression","volume":"10","author":"Gibson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.05.024","article-title":"Sensitive sulfide ion detection by optofluidic catalytic laser using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme","volume":"96","author":"Gong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10858","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.010858","article-title":"Flavin mononucleotide biomolecular laser: Longitudinal mode structure, polarization, and temporal characteristics as probes of local chemical environment","volume":"24","author":"Rivera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1039\/C8LC00638E","article-title":"Distributed fibre optofluidic laser for chip-scale arrayed biochemical sensing","volume":"18","author":"Gong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5734","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b01607","article-title":"Proton-controlled organic microlaser switch","volume":"12","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acs Nano"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.12.012","article-title":"Detecting enzymatic reactions in penicillinase via liquid crystal microdroplet-based pH sensor","volume":"258","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4904481","article-title":"Simultaneous detection of refractive index and surface charges in nanolaser biosensors","volume":"106","author":"Watanabe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24469","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.024469","article-title":"Ion-sensitive photonic-crystal nanolaser sensors","volume":"25","author":"Watanabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.09.093","article-title":"Organic distributed feedback laser for label-free biosensing of ErbB2 protein biomarker","volume":"223","author":"Merino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034005","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.7.034005","article-title":"Gain-based mechanism for pH sensing based on random lasing","volume":"7","author":"Gaio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35119","DOI":"10.1038\/srep35119","article-title":"Measuring milk fat content by random laser emission","volume":"6","author":"Pagani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9558","DOI":"10.1021\/ac302416g","article-title":"Intracavity DNA melting analysis with optofluidic lasers","volume":"84","author":"Wonsuk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.1039\/D0LC01332C","article-title":"A sequentially bioconjugated optofluidic laser for wash-out-free and rapid biomolecular detection","volume":"21","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901596","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201901596","article-title":"Lasing-encoded microsensor driven by interfacial cavity resonance energy transfer","volume":"8","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1039\/D0NA00107D","article-title":"Bio-electrostatic sensitive droplet lasers for molecular detection","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16039","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1003581107","article-title":"Bioinspired optofluidic FRET lasers via DNA scaffolds","volume":"107","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4770","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC01258B","article-title":"Digital DNA detection based on a compact optofluidic laser with ultra-low sample consumption","volume":"16","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2020.127672","article-title":"Detection of acetylcholinesterase and its inhibitors by liquid crystal biosensor based on whispering gallery mode","volume":"308","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2438","DOI":"10.1039\/D0LC00240B","article-title":"Ultrasensitive optofluidic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay by on-chip integrated polymer whispering-gallery-mode microlaser sensors","volume":"20","author":"Ouyang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201107381","article-title":"Distinguishing DNA by analog-to-digital-like conversion by using optofluidic lasers","volume":"51","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Angew. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3673","DOI":"10.1039\/c2lc40183e","article-title":"Bio-switchable optofluidic lasers based on DNA Holliday junctions","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1039\/c3lc50207d","article-title":"Highly sensitive fluorescent protein FRET detection using optofluidic lasers","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.0c00387","article-title":"Distinguishing small molecules in microcavity with molecular laser polarization","volume":"7","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.9b01795","article-title":"A Fast and reproducible ELISA laser platform for ultrasensitive protein quantification","volume":"5","author":"Tan","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7595","DOI":"10.1039\/D0AN01187H","article-title":"Quantitative and sensitive detection of lipase using a liquid crystal microfiber biosensor based on the whispering-gallery mode","volume":"145","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19187","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c22270","article-title":"Smart protein-based biolasers: An alternative way to protein conformation detection","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.02.013","article-title":"Turbidimetric inhibition immunoassay revisited to enhance its sensitivity via an optofluidic laser","volume":"131","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3779","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4779","article-title":"Optofluidic laser for dual-mode sensitive biomolecular detection with a large dynamic range","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-021-00517-6","article-title":"Whispering-gallery microlasers for cell tagging and barcoding:the prospects for in vivo biosensing","volume":"10","author":"Toropovo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201500144","article-title":"A simple approach to biological single-cell lasers via intracellular dyes","volume":"3","author":"Nizamoglu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27865","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.027865","article-title":"Cellular dye lasers: Lasing thresholds and sensing in a planar resonator","volume":"23","author":"Humar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2015.158","article-title":"Cellular lasers","volume":"9","author":"McGloin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2015.129","article-title":"Intracellular microlasers","volume":"9","author":"Humar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32981","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b09380","article-title":"Intracellular near-infrared microlaser probes based on organic microsphere-SiO2 Core-shell structures for cell tagging and tracking","volume":"10","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.07.021","article-title":"In-vitro sensing of biomechanical forces in live cells by a whispering gallery mode biosensor","volume":"25","author":"Himmelhaus","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5647","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.5b02491","article-title":"Lasing within live cells containing intracellular optical microresonators for barcode-type cell tagging and tracking","volume":"15","author":"Schubert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2011.226","article-title":"Nanowire-based single-cell endoscopy","volume":"7","author":"Yan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4817","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-07248-0","article-title":"Non-obstructive intracellular nanolasers","volume":"9","author":"Fikouras","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901573","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201901573","article-title":"Biolasing from individual cells in a low-Q resonator enables spectral fingerprinting","volume":"8","author":"Septiadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2011.99","article-title":"Single-cell biological lasers","volume":"5","author":"Gather","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4999","DOI":"10.1021\/nl304602d","article-title":"Single-cell photonic nanocavity probes","volume":"13","author":"Shambat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9729","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR00515J","article-title":"Nanowire lasers as intracellular probes","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2777","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00220C","article-title":"Spectral reading of optical resonance-encoded cells in microfluidics","volume":"17","author":"Humar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40877","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40877","article-title":"Lasing in live mitotic and non-phagocytic cells by efficient delivery of microresonators","volume":"7","author":"Schubert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2814","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00539C","article-title":"An integrated microwell array platform for cell lasing analysis","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201601022","article-title":"Microsphere solid-state biolasers","volume":"5","author":"Ta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-021-00466-0","article-title":"Laser particles with omnidirectional emission for cell tracking","volume":"10","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2182","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.0c00692","article-title":"Monitoring neuron activities and interactions with laser emissions","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.4.001080","article-title":"Biomaterial microlasers implantable in the cornea, skin, and blood","volume":"4","author":"Humar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.10.000838","article-title":"Chromatin laser imaging reveals abnormal nuclear changes for early cancer detection","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-017-0128-3","article-title":"Laser-emission imaging of nuclear biomarkers for high-contrast cancer screening and immunodiagnosis","volume":"1","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.3.000809","article-title":"Lasing in blood","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.35.001425","article-title":"Random lasing in bone tissue","volume":"35","author":"Song","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1782259","article-title":"Random lasing in human tissues","volume":"85","author":"Polson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8385","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08625-3","article-title":"Random lasing in human tissues embedded with organic dyes for cancer diagnosis","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.8b01537","article-title":"Ultrasound modulated droplet lasers","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC01457G","article-title":"Versatile tissue lasers based on high-Q Fabry\u2013P\u00e9rot microcavities","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.520098","article-title":"Characterization of atherosclerotic plaques by laser speckle imaging","volume":"112","author":"Nadkarni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.8b01188","article-title":"Biofluidic random laser cytometer for biophysical phenotyping of cell suspensions","volume":"4","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-018-0161-8","article-title":"Continuous-wave upconverting nanoparticle microlasers","volume":"13","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-019-0489-0","article-title":"Wavelength-encoded laser particles for massively-multiplexed cell tagging","volume":"13","author":"Martino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3534","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR09153F","article-title":"A curvature-tunable random laser","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2011.99","article-title":"Detecting single viruses and nanoparticles using whispering gallery microlasers","volume":"6","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3594","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11604-z","article-title":"Virus lasers for biological detection","volume":"10","author":"Hales","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5823","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.1c00020","article-title":"Imaging-based optofluidic biolaser array encapsulated with dynamic living organisms","volume":"93","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3299","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.36.003299","article-title":"Lasing from Escherichia coli bacteria genetically programmed to express green fluorescent protein","volume":"36","author":"Gather","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15528","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms15528","article-title":"Spaser as a biological probe","volume":"8","author":"Galanzha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-020-0631-z","article-title":"Monitoring contractility in cardiac tissue with cellular resolution using biointegrated microlasers","volume":"14","author":"Schubert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3416","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.1c01278","article-title":"Single-mode lasing in plasmonic-enhanced woven microfibers for multifunctional sensing","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100096","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202100096","article-title":"Topological encoded vector beams for monitoring amyloid-lipid interactions in microcavity","volume":"8","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s10404-007-0225-9","article-title":"Optofluidic dye lasers","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microfluid. Nanofluidics"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"106","article-title":"Tunable single mode lasing from an on-chip optofluidic ring resonator laser","volume":"98","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1039\/b920006a","article-title":"Optofluidic ring resonator switch for optical particle transport","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2623","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2018.2883722","article-title":"Pseudo whispering gallery mode optofluidic lasing based on air-clad optical fiber","volume":"37","author":"Gong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2020.106835","article-title":"A multi-sample analysis method with spatial resolution based on a single-longitudinal-mode fiber optofluidic microring laser","volume":"138","author":"Hs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1039\/C5LC01004G","article-title":"Optofluidic FRET lasers using aqueous quantum dots as donors","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1021\/a19900161","article-title":"Nucleic acid analysis","volume":"71","author":"Lewisgb","year":"1999","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06915","article-title":"Enabling personalized cancer medicine through analysis of gene-expression patterns","volume":"452","author":"Veer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg816","article-title":"The fundamental role of epigenetic events in cancer","volume":"3","author":"Jones","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16122","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c08219","article-title":"DNA self-switchable microlaser","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2019.2953168","article-title":"DC-biased optofluidic biolaser for uric acid detection","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100131S","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2244668","article-title":"Enzyme catalyzed optofluidic biolaser for sensitive ion concentration detection","volume":"10013","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"SPIE BioPhotonics Australas."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3565242","article-title":"A multicolor microfluidic droplet dye laser with single mode emission","volume":"98","author":"Aubry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2005.862952","article-title":"Optical resonators with whispering-gallery modes-part I: Basics","volume":"12","author":"Matsko","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2020.07.008","article-title":"Whispering-gallery sensors","volume":"3","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.201000025","article-title":"WGM microresonators: Sensing, lasing and fundamental optics with microspheres","volume":"5","author":"Ward","year":"2011","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2005.862953","article-title":"Optical sensors based on active microcavities","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9069","DOI":"10.1039\/D0SM01091J","article-title":"Chicken albumen based whispering gallery mode microlasers","volume":"16","author":"Mai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445104","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6463\/ab9bbe","article-title":"Egg white based biological microlasers","volume":"53","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5988","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201370259","article-title":"Biomaterial laser: All-biomaterial laser using vitamin and biopolymers","volume":"25","author":"Nizamoglu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b06772","article-title":"Starch-based biological microlasers","volume":"11","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acs Nano"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100036","DOI":"10.1002\/adpr.202100036","article-title":"Biocompatible polymer and protein microspheres with inverse photonic glass structure for random micro-biolasers","volume":"2","author":"Ta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orgel.2019.105389","article-title":"Random lasing in brain tissues","volume":"75","author":"Lahoz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Org. Electron."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.001775","article-title":"Biological laser action","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4823783","article-title":"Evaluation of mechanical behavior of soft tissue by means of random laser emission","volume":"84","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045805","DOI":"10.1088\/1612-2011\/12\/4\/045805","article-title":"Random laser in biological tissues impregnated with a fluorescent anticancer drug","volume":"12","author":"Lahoz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Laser Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35225","DOI":"10.1038\/srep35225","article-title":"A new class of optical sensors: A random laser based device","volume":"6","author":"Ignesti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28904-6","article-title":"Deep tissue localization and sensing using optical microcavity probes","volume":"13","author":"Garvas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3149\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:57:35Z","timestamp":1760137055000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3149"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22093149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22093149","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]}}}