{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T16:00:31Z","timestamp":1770912031072,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]],"date-time":"2022-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650412800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19KT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19KT0004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19H04507"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19H04507"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the growing demand from elderly persons for alternative mobility solutions, motorized mobility scooters (MMSs) have been gaining importance as an essential assistive technology to aid independent living in local communities. The increased use of MMSs, however, has raised safety issues during driving and magnified the necessity to evaluate and improve user driving skills. This study is intended to develop a novel quantitative monitoring method for MMS driving operation using inertial measurement units (IMUs). The proposed method used coordinate transformations around the rotational axes of the steering wheel and the throttle lever to estimate the steering and throttle operating angles based on gravitational accelerations measured by IMUs. Consequently, these operating angles can be monitored simply using an IMU attached to the throttle lever. Validation experiments with a test MMS in the stationary state confirmed the consistency of the proposed coordinate transformation with the MMS\u2019s geometrical structure. The driving test also demonstrated that the operating angles were estimated correctly on various terrains and that the effects of terrain inclination were compensated using an additional IMU attached to the scooter body. This method will be applicable to the quantitative monitoring of driving behavior and act as a complementary tool for the existing skills\u2019 evaluation methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093161","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,21]],"date-time":"2022-04-21T03:46:11Z","timestamp":1650512771000},"page":"3161","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Estimation of Steering and Throttle Angles of a Motorized Mobility Scooter with Inertial Measurement Units for Continuous Quantification of Driving Operation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Jun","family":"Suzurikawa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Assistive Technology, Research Institute, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, 4-1 Namiki, Tokorozawa-shi 359-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shunsuke","family":"Kurokawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Assistive Technology, Research Institute, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, 4-1 Namiki, Tokorozawa-shi 359-8555, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Systems Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji-shi 192-0397, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haruki","family":"Sugiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Assistive Technology, Research Institute, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, 4-1 Namiki, Tokorozawa-shi 359-8555, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Systems Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji-shi 192-0397, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2530-2040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kazunori","family":"Hase","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Systems Design, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji-shi 192-0397, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.3109\/02703181.2013.846451","article-title":"A systematic review of the impact of powered mobility devices on older adults\u2019 activity engagement","volume":"31","author":"Fomiatti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Occup. Ther. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jth.2015.03.005","article-title":"The impact of mobility scooters on their users. Does their usage help or hinder?: A state of the art review","volume":"2","author":"Thoreau","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transp. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.3109\/17483101003746352","article-title":"Electric-powered indoor\/outdoor wheelchairs (EPIOCs): Users\u2019 views of influence on family, friends and carers","volume":"5","author":"Frank","year":"2010","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2017.1306594","article-title":"The meaning ascribed to wheeled mobility devices by individuals who use wheelchairs and scooters: A metasynthesis","volume":"13","author":"Ripat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fredriksson, C., Pettersson, I., Hagberg, L., and Hermansson, L. (2020). The value of powered mobility scooters from the perspective of elderly spouses of the users\u2013a qualitative study. Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol., 1\u20135.","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2020.1804632"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3109\/17483107.2011.619224","article-title":"Mobility and mobility-related participation outcomes of powered wheelchair and scooter interventions after 4-months and 1-year use","volume":"7","author":"Pettersson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2017.1306589","article-title":"Adult Scandinavians\u2019 use of powered scooters: User satisfaction, frequency of use, and prediction of daily use","volume":"13","author":"Sund","year":"2018","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2015.05.0084","article-title":"Scoping review of mobility scooter-related research studies","volume":"53","author":"Mortenson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2012.749465","article-title":"Pedestrian and Motorized Mobility Scooter Safety of Older People","volume":"14","author":"Jancey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1080\/17457300.2015.1047857","article-title":"Deaths of older Australians related to their use of motorised mobility scooters","volume":"23","author":"Kitching","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Inj. Contr. Saf. Promot."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"132","article-title":"Motorised mobility scooters; upper limb fractures in elderly novice users","volume":"11","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Cases Miner. Bone Metab."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2016.07.010","article-title":"Exploring the characteristics of potential and current users of mobility scooters, among older people in Israel","volume":"46","author":"Gitelman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jth.2020.100917","article-title":"Mobility scooters in urban environments: A research agenda","volume":"18","author":"Isaacson","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transp. Health"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2021.106259","article-title":"Obstacles and risks in the traffic environment for users of powered wheelchairs in Sweden","volume":"159","author":"Henje","year":"2021","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"100426","article-title":"A policy review of electric personal assistive mobility devices","volume":"11","author":"Akter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.2013.006122","article-title":"Prescribers\u2019 experiences with powered mobility prescription among older adults","volume":"67","author":"Mortenson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16534","DOI":"10.2196\/16534","article-title":"Influence of cognitive functioning on powered mobility device use: Protocol for a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Pellichero","year":"2020","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suzurikawa, J., Sawada, Y., Sakiyama, M., Suwa, M., Inoue, T., and Kondo, T. (2021). Perspectives of Multidisciplinary Professional Teams during Assessment Processes for ATD Selection in the Japanese Public Provision System. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18052697"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3109\/17483101003793412","article-title":"A survey of adult power wheelchair and scooter users","volume":"5","author":"Edwards","year":"2010","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"43","article-title":"Riding into the future: A snapshot of elderly mobility scooter riders and how they use their scooters","volume":"127","author":"Sullivan","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Z. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1080\/11038128.2019.1573918","article-title":"Attitudes is the most important environmental factor for use of powered mobility devices\u2013users\u2019 perspectives","volume":"27","author":"Widehammar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scand. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.3109\/11038128.2014.905634","article-title":"Men\u2019s and women\u2019s perspectives on using a powered mobility device: Benefits and societal challenges","volume":"21","author":"Pettersson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Scand. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2019.1606910","article-title":"Acute injuries resulting from accidents involving powered mobility devices (PMDs)\u2014Development and outcomes of PMD-related accidents in Sweden","volume":"20","author":"Carlsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/154374","article-title":"Mobility assistance for older people","volume":"9","author":"Eck","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Bionics Biomech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., and Mulky, R. (2018). Enabling autonomous navigation for affordable scooters. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061829"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cecotti, M., Kanchwala, H., and Aouf, N. (2019, January 27\u201330). Autonomous Navigation for Mobility Scooters: A Complete Framework Based on Open-Source Software. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2019.8917469"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2018.1499136","article-title":"Perception of needing and using a mobility scooter: A preclinically disabled non-scooter user perspective","volume":"14","author":"Thoreau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil. Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2007.10.014","article-title":"Evidence from a cohort of able bodied adults to support the need for driver training for motorized scooters before community participation","volume":"70","author":"Nitz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Patient Educ. Couns."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1159\/000356766","article-title":"Motorized mobility scooters: The use of training\/intervention and technology for improving driving skills in aging adults\u2014A mini-review","volume":"60","author":"Toosizadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-017-1963-y","article-title":"Feasibility of a Systematic, Comprehensive, One-to-One Training (SCOOT) program for new scooter users: Study protocol for a randomized control trial","volume":"18","author":"Mortenson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1177\/000841749406100507","article-title":"Development of the Power-Mobility Indoor Driving Assessment for Residents of Long-Term Care Facilities: A Preliminary Report","volume":"61","author":"Dawson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Can. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"123","article-title":"Development of the Power-mobility Community Driving Assessment","volume":"11","author":"Letts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Can. J. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-9993(03)00427-1","article-title":"The wheelchair skills test, version 2.4: Validity of an algorithm-based questionnaire version","volume":"85","author":"Mountain","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.3233\/TAD-2004-16103","article-title":"Development of an obstacle course assessment of wheelchair user performance (OCAWUP): A content validity study","volume":"16","author":"Routhier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Technol. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S184","DOI":"10.1002\/tee.21823","article-title":"Evaluation of changes in power wheelchair maneuver induced by a downhill turning prevention control on cross sloped surfaces","volume":"7","author":"Suzurikawa","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEJ Trans. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-8-31","article-title":"Assessment of Joystick control during the performance of powered wheelchair driving tasks","volume":"8","author":"Sorrento","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-019-0613-x","article-title":"SenseJoy, a pluggable solution for assessing user behavior during powered wheelchair driving tasks","volume":"16","author":"Rabreau","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1089\/cpb.2007.0271","article-title":"An electric scooter simulation program for training the driving skills of stroke patients with mobility problems: A pilot study","volume":"11","author":"Jannink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/23311908.2018.1485473","article-title":"Driving slow motorised vehicles with visual impairment\u2014A simulator study","volume":"5","author":"Cordes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogent Psychol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2018.1518543","article-title":"The effects of habituation and adding a rest-frame on experienced simulator sickness in an advanced mobility scooter driving simulator","volume":"62","author":"Heutink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6891","DOI":"10.3390\/s140406891","article-title":"IMU-based joint angle measurement for gait analysis","volume":"14","author":"Seel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181446","article-title":"Validation of functional calibration and strap-down joint drift correction for computing 3D joint angles of knee, hip, and trunk in alpine skiing","volume":"12","author":"Fasel","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2020.109832","article-title":"Determining anatomical frames via inertial motion capture: A survey of methods","volume":"106","author":"Vitali","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0249577","article-title":"Error-state Kalman filter for lower-limb kinematic estimation: Evaluation on a 3-body model","volume":"16","author":"Potter","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/10400435.2017.1340913","article-title":"Data Logger Technologies for Powered Wheelchairs: A Scoping Review","volume":"31","author":"Routhier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Assist. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JTEHM.2014.2365773","article-title":"Automatic detection and classification of unsafe events during power wheelchair use","volume":"2","author":"Pineau","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Transl. Eng. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4258\/hir.2017.23.1.4","article-title":"Wearable devices in medical internet of things: Scientific research and commercially available devices","volume":"23","author":"Haghi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Healthc. Inform. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dyadic Mirror: Everyday Second-person Live-view for Empathetic Reflection upon Parent-child Interaction","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3432703","article-title":"User-Based Collaborative Filtering Mobile Health System","volume":"4","author":"Kao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6997","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2589660","article-title":"Fast Complementary Filter for Attitude Estimation Using Low-Cost MARG Sensors","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3161\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:57:41Z","timestamp":1760137061000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3161"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22093161"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22093161","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]]}}}