{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T00:37:28Z","timestamp":1776299848102,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]],"date-time":"2022-04-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650931200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Key Laboratory of Flame Retardancy Finishing of Textile Materials, CNTAC","award":["Q811580421"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Q811580421"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fire is indeed one of the major contributing factors to fatalities, property damage, and economic disruption. A large number of fire incidents across the world cause devastation beyond measure and description every year. To minimalize their impacts, the implementation of innovative and effective fire early warning technologies is essential. Despite the fact that research publications on fire detection technology have addressed the issue to some extent, fire detection technology still confronts hurdles in decreasing false alerts, improving sensitivity and dynamic responsibility, and providing protection for costly and complicated installations. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current futuristic practices in the context of fire detection and monitoring strategies, with an emphasis on the methods of detecting fire through the continuous monitoring of variables, such as temperature, flame, gaseous content, and smoke, along with their respective benefits and drawbacks, measuring standards, and parameter measurement spans. Current research directions and challenges related to the technology of fire detection and future perspectives on fabricating advanced fire sensors are also provided. We hope such a review can provide inspiration for fire sensor research dedicated to the development of advanced fire detection techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]],"date-time":"2022-04-26T21:37:53Z","timestamp":1651009073000},"page":"3310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":179,"title":["Recent Advances in Sensors for Fire Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Fawad","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}]},{"given":"Zhiguang","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China-Australia Institute for Advanced Materials and Manufacturing, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China"}]},{"given":"Junling","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Qingdao Petroleum Branch, SINOPEC Sales Co., Ltd., Qingdao 266071, China"}]},{"given":"Fazal Maula","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Adnan","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2386-2901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Brushlinsky, P.W.N., Ahrens, M., and Sokolov, S. (2021, May 15). World Fire Statistics. Available online: https:\/\/www.ctif.org\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2016.2526119","article-title":"An information exchange framework utilizing smart buildings for efficient microgrid operation","volume":"104","author":"Joo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"35","article-title":"New Fire Detection Concepts","volume":"7","author":"Morgan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"561","article-title":"Development of fire detection systems in the intelligent building","volume":"2001","author":"Liu","year":"2001","journal-title":"NIST Spec. Publ. SP"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"61","article-title":"Smoke Detectors and Life Safety","volume":"153","author":"Crapo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fire Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purser, D.A. (2016). Toxicity Assessment of Combustion Products. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2565-0_62"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fonollosa, J., Sol\u00f3rzano, A., and Marco, S. (2018). Chemical sensor systems and associated algorithms for fire detection: A review. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020553"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-020-00986-y","article-title":"Video flame and smoke based fire detection algorithms: A literature review","volume":"56","author":"Gaur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsp.2013.07.003","article-title":"Video fire detection\u2013Review","volume":"23","author":"Dimitropoulos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaabi, R., Frizzi, S., Bouchouicha, M., Fnaiech, F., Moreau, E., R Kaabi, S.F., and Moreau, E. (2017, January 17\u201319). Video Smoke Detection Review: State of the Art of Smoke Detection in Visible and IR Range. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Smart, Monitored and Controlled Cities (SM2C), Sfax, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SM2C.2017.8071823"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1108\/02602281311299635","article-title":"Sensors for fire detection","volume":"33","author":"Bogue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghali, R., Jmal, M., Mseddi, W.S., and Attia, R. (2018, January 18\u201320). Recent Advances in Fire Detection and Monitoring Systems: A Review. Proceedings of the International conference on the Sciences of Electronics, Technologies of Information and Telecommunications, Genoa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-21005-2_32"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barmpoutis, P., Papaioannou, P., Dimitropoulos, K., and Grammalidis, N. (2020). A review on early forest fire detection systems using optical remote sensing. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226442"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2162060","article-title":"Distributed temperature sensing: Review of technology and applications","volume":"12","author":"Ukil","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2011.11.002","article-title":"Fire hazard in bridges: Review, assessment and repair strategies","volume":"35","author":"Garlock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debliquy, M., Lahem, D., Bueno-Martinez, A., Ravet, G., Renoirt, J.-M., and Caucheteur, C. (2015). Review of the Use of the Optical Fibers for Safety Applications in Tunnels and Car Parks: Pollution Monitoring, Fire and Explosive Gas Detection. Sensing Technology: Current Status and Future Trends III, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10948-0_1"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kennedy, P.M., Kennedy, K.C., and Kennedy, J.A. (2003). Flashover and Fire Analysis\u2014A Discussion of the Practical Use of Flashover Analysis in Fire Investiga-tions, CiteSeer."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.810070202","article-title":"Post-Flashover compartment fires","volume":"7","author":"Harmathy","year":"1983","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickstr\u00f6m, U. (2016). Temperature Calculation in Fire Safety Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-30172-3"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Notarianni, K.A., Cyganski, D., and Duckworth, R.J. (2012, January 12\u201313). Development of a Portable Flashover Predictor (Fire-Ground Environment Sensor System). Proceedings of the International Conference on Safety (ICS2012), Gandhinagar, India."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2021.103469","article-title":"Development of a machine-learning approach for identifying the stages of fire development in residential room fires","volume":"126","author":"Fang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(01)00045-5","article-title":"Smoke venting and fire safety in an industrial warehouse","volume":"37","author":"He","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(01)00026-1","article-title":"Post-flashover fires for structural design","volume":"37","author":"Feasey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behnam, B. (2017). Post-Earthquake Fire Analysis in Urban Structures: Risk Management Strategies, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315166117"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1108\/IJDRBE-02-2015-0005","article-title":"Overview of fire following earthquake: Historical events and community responses","volume":"8","author":"Khorasani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Disaster Resil. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2015.02.001","article-title":"Applying building information modeling to support fire safety management","volume":"59","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advengsoft.2020.102792","article-title":"Scenario simulation of indoor post-earthquake fire rescue based on building information model and virtual reality","volume":"143","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Softw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2021.102559","article-title":"A BIM-based framework for evacuation assessment of high-rise buildings under post-earthquake fires","volume":"43","author":"Lotfi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"A refractive index and temperature sensor based on surface plasmon resonance in an exposed-core microstructured optical fiber","volume":"8","author":"Luan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.2298\/TSCI130211102J","article-title":"On a linear fire detection using coaxial cables","volume":"18","year":"2014","journal-title":"Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43383","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b16336","article-title":"Multifunctional and high-sensitive sensor capable of detecting humidity, temperature, and flow stimuli using an integrated microheater","volume":"11","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoff, H. (2017, January 8\u201310). Using Distributed Fibre Optic Sensors for Detecting Fires and Hot Rollers on Conveyor Belts. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference for Fibre-Optic and Photonic Sensors for Industrial and Safety Applications (OFSIS), Brisbane, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/OFSIS.2017.9"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrias, A., Casas, J.R., and Villalba, S. (2016). A review of distributed optical fiber sensors for civil engineering applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050748"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Wang, A., Liu, W., Li, X., Yue, C., Wang, Y., Wang, Q., and Cai, X. (2001, January 25\u201328). Distributed optical fiber temperature detecting and alarm system. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2005.06.024","article-title":"A distributed optical fiber sensor for temperature detection in power cables","volume":"125","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laarossi, I., Quintela-Incera, M.\u00c1., and L\u00f3pez-Higuera, J.M. (2019). Comparative experimental study of a high-temperature raman-based distributed optical fiber sensor with different special fibers. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030574"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1177\/104239159400600203","article-title":"International developments in fire sensor technology","volume":"6","author":"Meacham","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Fire Prot. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.24.000510","article-title":"Characterization of the Brillouin-loss spectrum of single-mode fibers by use of very short (<10-ns) pulses","volume":"24","author":"Bao","year":"1999","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.7-221","article-title":"Brillouin scattering based distributed fiber optic temperature sensing for fire detection","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042054","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1550\/4\/042054","article-title":"Fire detector based on serial FBG temperature sensors optical cabling","volume":"1550","author":"Junwei","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109406","article-title":"Distributed temperature sensing system based on a densely spaced FBG array for small fire recognition","volume":"179","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2021.103275","article-title":"Distributed fiber optic measurements of strain and temperature in long-span composite floor beams with simple shear connections subject to compartment fires","volume":"121","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2009.11.016","article-title":"Structures of thermally and chemically reduced graphene","volume":"64","author":"Ju","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001040","DOI":"10.1002\/smtd.202001040","article-title":"A Durable, Flexible, Large-Area, Flame-Retardant, Early Fire Warning Sensor with Built-In Patterned Electrodes","volume":"5","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Small Methods"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b06590","article-title":"Efficient flame detection and early warning sensors on combustible materials using hierarchical graphene oxide\/silicone coatings","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.03.045","article-title":"A highly efficient flame retardant nacre-inspired nanocoating with ultrasensitive fire-warning and self-healing capabilities","volume":"369","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.122929","article-title":"A sandwich-like flame retardant nanocoating for supersensitive fire-warning","volume":"382","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.09.082","article-title":"Temperature-triggered sensitive resistance transition of graphene oxide wide-ribbons wrapped sponge for fire ultrafast detecting and early warning","volume":"363","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2019.03.053","article-title":"Silane grafted graphene oxide papers for improved flame resistance and fast fire alarm response","volume":"168","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.130717","article-title":"Facile Preparation of BP-MoS2\/GO Composite Films with Excellent Flame Retardancy and Ultrasensitive Response for Smart Fire Alarm","volume":"426","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3228","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.1c00113","article-title":"Facile Construction of a Flexible Film with Ultrahigh Thermal Conductivity and Excellent Flame Retardancy for a Smart Fire Alarm","volume":"33","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2495216","article-title":"Design of a calibrated temperature difference sensor transducer for monitoring environmental temperature difference applications","volume":"16","author":"Chiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jevti\u0107, R.B., and Blagojevi\u0107, M.\u0110. (2011, January 22\u201324). Linear fire detection with distance determination using coaxial cables. Proceedings of the 2011 19th Telecommunications Forum (TELFOR) Proceedings of Papers, Belgrade, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/TELFOR.2011.6143679"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2005.06.004","article-title":"Signal processing algorithms for fire localization using temperature sensor arrays","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bosch, I., Gomez, S., Molina, R., and Miralles, R. (2009, January 22\u201326). Object discrimination by infrared image processing. Proceedings of the International Work-Conference on the Interplay between Natural and Artificial Computation, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02267-8_4"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, M., Tang, Y., Yang, S., Li, J., Sigrist, M.W., and Dong, F. (2016). Fire source localization based on distributed temperature sensing by a dual-line optical fiber system. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060829"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5612850","DOI":"10.34133\/2021\/5612850","article-title":"Kilometers Long Graphene-Coated Optical Fibers for Fast Thermal Sensing","volume":"2021","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34762","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.440265","article-title":"Single-ended self-calibration high-accuracy Raman distributed temperature sensing based on multi-core fiber","volume":"29","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.5246","article-title":"Thermally induced fire early warning aerogel with efficient thermal isolation and flame-retardant properties","volume":"32","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2018.07.110","article-title":"A temperature-induced conductive coating via layer-by-layer assembly of functionalized graphene oxide and carbon nanotubes for a flexible, adjustable response time flame sensor","volume":"353","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.123894","article-title":"Temperature-responsive resistance sensitivity controlled by L-ascorbic acid and silane co-functionalization in flame-retardant GO network for efficient fire early-warning response","volume":"386","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2020.123292","article-title":"Functionalized graphene paper with the function of fuse and its flame-triggered self-cutting performance for fire-alarm sensor application","volume":"252","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.123645","article-title":"Nacre-like graphene oxide paper bonded with boric acid for fire early-warning sensor","volume":"403","author":"Yuan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2020.108017","article-title":"Water-based hybrid coatings toward mechanically flexible, super-hydrophobic and flame-retardant polyurethane foam nanocomposites with high-efficiency and reliable fire alarm response","volume":"193","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2020.105797","article-title":"Simultaneous improvements in fire resistance and alarm response of GO paper via one-step 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane functionalization for efficient fire safety and prevention","volume":"131","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2020.125729","article-title":"An ultrasensitive fire-warning chitosan\/montmorillonite\/carbon nanotube composite aerogel with high fire-resistance","volume":"399","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"283","article-title":"Response-time comparisons of ionization and photoelectric\/heat detectors","volume":"25","author":"Qualey","year":"2001","journal-title":"NIST Spec. Publ. SP"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Y., Feng, X., Jiao, J., Peng, Z., Qian, S., Xue, H., and Li, H. (2020). Smart Fire Alarm System with Person Detection and Thermal Camera. International Conference on Computational Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-50436-6_26"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"111","article-title":"Operational Algorithm for a Heat Detector Used in Motor Vehicles","volume":"3","author":"Kushnir","year":"2021","journal-title":"East.-Eur. J. Enterp. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s12273-021-0775-x","article-title":"A Real-Time Forecast of Tunnel Fire Based on Numerical Database and Artificial Intelligence","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Build. Simul."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Schmoetzer, K. (2001). Aircraft Fire Detection: Requirements, Qualification, and Certification Aspects, 12th International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-7112(94)90072-8","article-title":"Gas sensing for fire detection: Measurements of CO, CO2, H2, O2, and smoke density in European standard fire tests","volume":"22","author":"Jackson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"20","article-title":"CO Fire Detection: A Useful Technique? Report on a Test Programme and Discusses the Issues Involved in the Use of CO Fire Detectors","volume":"7","author":"Barrett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9635","DOI":"10.3390\/s120709635","article-title":"A survey on gas sensing technology","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1750-0680-2-10","article-title":"Estimates of CO2 from fires in the United States: Implications for carbon management","volume":"2","author":"Wiedinmyer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Carbon Balance Manag."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2017.05.003","article-title":"Fire toxicity\u2013The elephant in the room?","volume":"91","author":"Stec","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Reddy, A.P.K., Reddy, E.S., Bhaskar, T., Yadav, B.P., and Singh, A.K. (2020). Design of Fire and Gas Detection System for a Process Plant: A Review. Advances in Industrial Safety, Springer."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jab\u0142o\u0144ski, K., and Grychowski, T. (2018, January 17\u201320). The Method for Easy Identifying Zero Temperature Drift of Catalytic Bead Sensor. Proceedings of the 2018 XV International Scientific Conference on Optoelectronic and Electronic Sensors (COE), Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/COE.2018.8435169"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.891956","article-title":"Transition metal exchanged zeolite layers for selectivity enhancement of metal-oxide semiconductor gas sensors","volume":"7","author":"Mann","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naik, A., Parkin, I., and Binions, R. (2016). Gas sensing studies of an NN hetero-junction array based on SnO2 and ZnO composites. Chemosensors, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors4010003"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2017.2657788","article-title":"Single chip gas sensor array for air quality monitoring","volume":"26","author":"Prajapati","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4349","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2711000","article-title":"P (VDF-HFP) polymer as sensing material for capacitive carbon dioxide sensors","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Riches, J., Chapman, A., and Beardon, J. (July, January 28). The Detection of Fire Precursors Using Chemical Sensors. Proceedings of the 8th International Fire Science and Engineering Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2002.804360","article-title":"Carbon monoxide detector fabricated on the basis of a tin oxide novel doping method","volume":"2","author":"Mandayo","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2091404","article-title":"Comparative study of carbon monoxide gas sensing mechanism for the LTPS MOS Schottky diodes with various metal oxides","volume":"11","author":"Juang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2777178","article-title":"SnO2 nanowire-based aerosol jet printed electronic nose as fire detector","volume":"18","author":"Adib","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5118805","article-title":"Resistive gas sensors based on metal-oxide nanowires","volume":"126","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.2014.2362353","article-title":"Designing tunable microstructure spectroscopic gas sensor using optofluidic hollow-core photonic crystal fiber","volume":"50","author":"Kuhlmey","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1117\/12.224112","article-title":"Optical-Based UV-IR Gas Detector for Environmental Monitoring of Flammable Hydrocarbons and Toxic Gases","volume":"2504","author":"Dankner","year":"1995","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Hazard. Waste Site Remediat."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4338","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2017.2762636","article-title":"A robust method for tuning photoacoustic gas detectors","volume":"65","author":"Leis","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2018.2868450","article-title":"All-optical fiber photoacoustic gas sensor with double resonant enhancement","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2448","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2018.2846181","article-title":"High-temperature ultrasonic sensor for fission gas characterization in MTR harsh environment","volume":"65","author":"Gatsa","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.917124","article-title":"A committee machine gas identification system based on dynamically reconfigurable FPGA","volume":"8","author":"Shi","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4245","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2356651","article-title":"An energy-efficient smart comfort sensing system based on the IEEE 1451 standard for green buildings","volume":"14","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Serio, M.A., Bonanno, A.S., and Newman, J.S. (1994, January 17\u201320). FT-IR Based System for Fire Detection. Proceedings of the NIST Annual Conference on Fire Research, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Serio, M.A., Bonamno, A.S., Knight, K.S., and Newman, J.S. (1996, January 28\u201331). Fourier Transform Infrared Diagnostics for Improved Fire Detection Systems. Proceedings of the NIST Annual Conference on Fire Research, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Cleary, T., and Ono, T. (2001). Enhanced Residential Fire Detection by Combining Smoke and CO Sensors (SP 965), Special Publication (NIST SP)."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2018.11.013","article-title":"Development of an early warning fire detection system based on a laser spectroscopic carbon monoxide sensor using a 32-bit system-on-chip","volume":"96","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijthermalsci.2009.08.006","article-title":"Measurement of infrared radiation emitted by the flame of a vegetation fire","volume":"49","author":"Parent","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1080\/00102202.2014.883217","article-title":"Simulations of autoignition and laminar premixed flames in methane\/air mixtures diluted with hot products","volume":"186","author":"Sidey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Combust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2006.876589","article-title":"A new flame monitor with triple photovoltaic cells","volume":"55","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1109\/41.824139","article-title":"A method for spark rejection in ultraviolet flame detectors","volume":"47","author":"Pauchard","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4454","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2710301","article-title":"PbS colloidal quantum dot visible-blind photodetector for early indoor fire detection","volume":"17","author":"Venettacci","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-017-0683-x","article-title":"Efficient flame detection based on static and dynamic texture analysis in forest fire detection","volume":"54","author":"Prema","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67204","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2748752","article-title":"Fire detection in infrared video using wavelet analysis","volume":"46","author":"Cinbis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2008.05.005","article-title":"Fire detection in video sequences using a generic color model","volume":"44","author":"Celik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Kozeki, D. (2001, January 25\u201328). Smoldering Fire Detection by Image-Processing. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Automatic Detection, Gaithersburg, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-020-01030-9","article-title":"Fire Detection Using Multi Color Space and Background Modeling","volume":"57","author":"Khalil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2009.10.017","article-title":"Multi-feature fusion based fast video flame detection","volume":"45","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.4218\/etrij.10.0109.0695","article-title":"Fast and efficient method for fire detection using image processing","volume":"32","author":"Celik","year":"2010","journal-title":"ETRI J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2015.11.015","article-title":"Fast fire flame detection in surveillance video using logistic regression and temporal smoothing","volume":"79","author":"Kong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18174","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2812835","article-title":"Convolutional neural networks based fire detection in surveillance videos","volume":"6","author":"Muhammad","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2583","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-021-01129-7","article-title":"Fire Detection Based on Fractal Analysis and Spatio-Temporal Features","volume":"57","author":"Torabian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2786","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2013.2258353","article-title":"Optical flow estimation for flame detection in videos","volume":"22","author":"Mueller","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Processing"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2006.02.001","article-title":"An image processing technique for fire detection in video images","volume":"41","author":"Marbach","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-009-0106-8","article-title":"Fire detection in video using LMS based active learning","volume":"46","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.06.015","article-title":"Computer vision based method for real-time fire and flame detection","volume":"27","author":"Cetin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1007\/s00138-011-0369-1","article-title":"Covariance matrix-based fire and flame detection method in video","volume":"23","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mach. Vis. Appl."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2011.2157190","article-title":"Modeling and formalization of fuzzy finite automata for detection of irregular fire flames","volume":"21","author":"Ko","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2012.10.011","article-title":"Adaptive flame detection using randomness testing and robust features","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-012-0253-1","article-title":"An improved probabilistic approach for fire detection in videos","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2015.2392531","article-title":"Real-time fire detection for video-surveillance applications using a combination of experts based on color, shape, and motion","volume":"25","author":"Foggia","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2010.2045813","article-title":"A probabilistic approach for vision-based fire detection in videos","volume":"20","author":"Borges","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2014.2339592","article-title":"Spatio-temporal flame modeling and dynamic texture analysis for automatic video-based fire detection","volume":"25","author":"Dimitropoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2011.2175833","article-title":"An autoadaptive edge-detection algorithm for flame and fire image processing","volume":"61","author":"Qiu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2016.0193","article-title":"Real-Time Multi-Feature Based Fire Flame Detection in Video","volume":"11","author":"Chi","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, D., Chen, X., Nguyen, M., and Yan, W.Q. (2018, January 20\u201323). Flame Detection Using Deep Learning. Proceedings of the 2018 4th International Conference on Control, Automation and Robotics (ICCAR), Auckland, New Zealand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAR.2018.8384711"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.10-213","article-title":"A detailed study of the properties of smoke particles produced from both flaming and non-flaming combustion of common mine combustibles","volume":"10","author":"Perera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drysdale, D.D. (2016). Thermochemistry. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2565-0_5"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.3155\/1047-3289.61.2.126","article-title":"Total diesel exhaust particulate length measurements using a modified household smoke alarm ionization chamber","volume":"61","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunner, C., Peynot, T., and Vidal-Calleja, T. (2011, January 25\u201330). Combining Multiple Sensor Modalities for a Localisation Robust to Smoke. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2011.6094614"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"37","article-title":"Left Luggage\u2019-Automatic Fire Detection and the New Century","volume":"60","author":"Morgan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025378100781","article-title":"Investigation of multi-sensor algorithms for fire detection","volume":"39","author":"Milke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015498224060","article-title":"Fire test comparisons of smoke detector response times","volume":"36","author":"Qualey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"247","article-title":"Multi-sensor, multi-criteria detectors are better","volume":"99","author":"Conforti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. AUBE"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(01)00057-1","article-title":"Advanced fire detection using multi-signature alarm algorithms","volume":"37","author":"Gottuk","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02985142","article-title":"A study on smoke movement in room fires with various pool fire location","volume":"16","author":"Jeong","year":"2002","journal-title":"KSME Int. J."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.895971","article-title":"Gamma-free smoke and particle detector using tritiated foils","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3031","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2208741","article-title":"High-sensitivity miniature smoke detector","volume":"12","author":"Bakhoum","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.845207","article-title":"Multiwavelength sensing of smoke using a polychromatic LED: Mie extinction characterization using HLS analysis","volume":"5","author":"Aspey","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"700","article-title":"Review of fire detection technologies based on video image","volume":"49","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"\u00c7elik, T., \u00d6zkaramanl\u0131, H., and Demirel, H. (2007, January 3\u20137). Fire and Smoke Detection without Sensors: Image Processing Based Approach. Proceedings of the 2007 15th European Signal Processing Conference, Poznan, Poland."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2009.08.003","article-title":"Smoke detection in video using wavelets and support vector machines","volume":"44","author":"Gubbi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2008.07.006","article-title":"Fire detection based on vision sensor and support vector machines","volume":"44","author":"Ko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2010.04.001","article-title":"Early fire detection algorithm based on irregular patterns of flames and hierarchical Bayesian Networks","volume":"45","author":"Ko","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2011.01.001","article-title":"Video-based smoke detection with histogram sequence of LBP and LBPV pyramids","volume":"46","author":"Yuan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-015-0489-7","article-title":"QuickBlaze: Early fire detection using a combined video processing approach","volume":"52","author":"Qureshi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2014.1032","article-title":"Real-time image smoke detection using staircase searching-based dual threshold AdaBoost and dynamic analysis","volume":"9","author":"Yuan","year":"2015","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csite.2020.100625","article-title":"Image fire detection algorithms based on convolutional neural networks","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Stud. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryu, J., and Kwak, D. (2021). Flame Detection Using Appearance-Based Pre-Processing and Convolutional Neural Network. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11115138"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-020-01044-0","article-title":"Real-time video fire\/smoke detection based on CNN in antifire surveillance systems","volume":"18","author":"Saponara","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Real-Time Image Process."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2017.04.083","article-title":"Early fire detection using convolutional neural networks during surveillance for effective disaster management","volume":"288","author":"Muhammad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2021.115125","article-title":"Deepsmoke: Deep learning model for smoke detection and segmentation in outdoor environments","volume":"182","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valikhujaev, Y., Abdusalomov, A., and Cho, Y.I. (2020). Automatic fire and smoke detection method for surveillance systems based on dilated cnns. Atmosphere, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11111241"},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"Ruser, H., and Magori, V. (1998, January 5\u20138). Fire Detection with a Combined Ultrasonic-Microwave Doppler Sensor. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium. Proceedings (Cat. No. 98CH36102), Sendai, Japan."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2010.2076324","article-title":"Biomimetic infrared sensors based on photomechanic infrared receptors in pyrophilous (\u2018fire-loving\u2019) insects","volume":"12","author":"Schmitz","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u2019vov, A.A., Komarov, V.V., Kuzin, S.A., and L\u2019vov, P.A. (February, January 29). Fire Detection and Alarm Sensor for Avionics Based on Current Loop Circuit. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EIConRus), Moscow and St. Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EIConRus.2018.8317284"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.894887","article-title":"An information fusion-based multiobjective security system with a multiple-input\/single-output sensor","volume":"7","author":"Ishigaki","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, H.B., Duan, J.J., and Lu, W.J. (2019, January 20\u201322). Design of Fire Detection System Based on Digital Microholography. Proceedings of the Second Target Recognition and Artificial Intelligence Summit Forum, Changchun, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2552716"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106527","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202106527","article-title":"Harvesting Multidirectional Breeze Energy and Self-Powered Intelligent Fire Detection Systems Based on Triboelectric Nanogenerator and Fluid-Dynamic Modeling","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_161","unstructured":"Bianchi, G. (2014). Radiometer aids: Fire detection. Microw. RF, 66\u201371."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2306","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2474121","article-title":"Fire emissivity detection by a microwave radiometer","volume":"12","author":"Dvorak","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3608","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2394776","article-title":"Error correction method for passive and wireless resonant SAW temperature sensor","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s12217-015-9422-4","article-title":"Acoustic flame suppression mechanics in a microgravity environment","volume":"27","author":"Beisner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microgravity Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salauddin, S., Nalajala, P., and Godavarth, B. (2016, January 3\u20135). Sound Fire Extinguishers in Space Stations. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, and Optimization Techniques (ICEEOT), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEEOT.2016.7755345"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J.H., Lee, S., Yun, S., Kim, H., and Kim, W.-T. (2019). Dependable fire detection system with multifunctional artificial intelligence framework. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19092025"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-020-1269-5","article-title":"Fire detection method based on depthwise separable convolution and yolov3","volume":"18","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Comput."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avazov, K., Mukhiddinov, M., Makhmudov, F., and Cho, Y.I. (2021). Fire Detection Method in Smart City Environments Using a Deep-Learning-Based Approach. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11010073"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, X., Li, C., Ma, X., Chen, F., Wang, H., Sharma, A., Gaba, G., and Masud, M. (2021). Design of multi-information fusion based intelligent electrical fire detection system for green buildings. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13063405"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, M., and Ko, B.C. (2020). Two-step real-time night-time fire detection in an urban environment using Static ELASTIC-YOLOv3 and Temporal Fire-Tube. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082202"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, P., Yu, H., Cang, S., and Vladareanu, L. (2016, January 7\u20138). Robot-Assisted Smart Firefighting and Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Proceedings of the 2016 22nd International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC), Colchester, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/IConAC.2016.7604952"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2018.2792701","article-title":"Aerial hose type robot by water jet for fire fighting","volume":"3","author":"Ando","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liljeback, P., Stavdahl, O., and Beitnes, A. (2006, January 5\u20138). SnakeFighter-Development of a Water Hydraulic Fire Fighting Snake Robot. Proceedings of the 2006 9th International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICARCV.2006.345311"},{"key":"ref_174","unstructured":"Ackerman, E.G.E. (2021, June 18). New WALK-MAN Robot Is Slimmer, Quicker, Better at Quenching Your Flames\u2014IEEE Spectrum. IEEE Spectrum. Available online: https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/automaton\/robotics\/humanoids\/new-version-of-walkman-is-slimmer-quicker-better-at-quenching-your-flames."},{"key":"ref_175","unstructured":"L. 60TM (2021, June 18). LUF 60\u2014LUF GmbH. Available online: https:\/\/www.luf60.at\/en\/extinguishing-support\/fire-fighting-robot-luf-60\/."},{"key":"ref_176","unstructured":"(2021, June 18). Fire Fighting UGV|Parosha Cheatah GOSAFER. Available online: http:\/\/www.parosha-cheatah-gosafer.com\/tasks\/fire-fighting-ugv\/."},{"key":"ref_177","unstructured":"(2021, June 18). TAF20 Robot: Firefighting Robot. Available online: https:\/\/robot.cfp.co.ir\/en\/newsdetail\/106."},{"key":"ref_178","unstructured":"(2021, June 18). ThermiteTM|Howe & Howe Technologies. Available online: https:\/\/www.howeandhowe.com\/civil\/thermite."},{"key":"ref_179","unstructured":"(2021, June 18). DRB Fatec. Available online: http:\/\/www.drbfatec.com\/html\/01_business\/business_0501.php."},{"key":"ref_180","unstructured":"(2021, June 18). Products Archive\u2014Brokk Global. Available online: https:\/\/www.brokk.com\/product\/."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3310\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:01:14Z","timestamp":1760137274000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3310"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]},"references-count":180,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22093310"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22093310","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,26]]}}}