{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:25:30Z","timestamp":1787876730351,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]],"date-time":"2022-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651276800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Pusan National University"},{"name":"BK21 FOUR, Korean Southeast Center for the 4th Industrial Revolution Leader Education"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A smart city is an urban area that collects data from various devices to effectively manage urban resources. The smart city IoT infrastructure connects numerous devices to an Internet-protocol-based low-power wireless network, shares massive amounts of data, and facilitates the development of new services. Message queuing telemetry transport (MQTT), a lightweight exchange protocol for the IoT environment, uses a publish and subscribe structure via a centralized broker to share data. The extent of edge computing provides distributed and closer resources to the data source while maintaining low transmission costs. However, a centralized MQTT data broker is unsuitable for distributed edge resources and could result in high latency, traffic, and bottleneck risk. Therefore, we proposed a distributed MQTT broker optimized architecture. A distributed MQTT broker for edge resources could reduce network traffic and data delivery latency by only managing consumed topics in the network. We formulate an integer non-linear program to optimize container placement and avoid wasting edge computing resources. We compared our proposed architecture to the existing distributed MQTT middleware architecture with greedy and random container placement through extensive simulation. Our methods show better performance in lowering deployment failure ratio, power consumption, network usage, and synchronization overhead.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22093431","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,2]],"date-time":"2022-05-02T07:08:58Z","timestamp":1651475338000},"page":"3431","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Optimal Distributed MQTT Broker and Services Placement for SDN-Edge Based Smart City Architecture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4005-417X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dzaky Zakiyal","family":"Fawwaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sang-Hwa","family":"Chung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang-Woo","family":"Ahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1341-7978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Won-Suk","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1109\/MIC.2016.124","article-title":"Internet of things for smart cities: Interoperability and open data","volume":"20","author":"Ahlgren","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Comput."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tantitharanukul, N., Osathanunkul, K., Hantrakul, K., Pramokchon, P., and Khoenkaw, P. (2016, January 14\u201317). Mqtt-topic naming criteria of open data for smart cities. Proceedings of the 2016 International Computer Science and Engineering Conference (ICSEC), Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSEC.2016.7859892"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2017.09.003","article-title":"Interest-aware energy collection & resource management in machine to machine communications","volume":"68","author":"Tsiropoulou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ad. Hoc. Networks"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonomi, F., Milito, R., Zhu, J., and Addepalli, S. (2012, January 17). Fog computing and its role in the internet of things. Proceedings of the First Edition of the MCC Workshop on Mobile Cloud Computing, Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1145\/2342509.2342513"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1145\/2677046.2677052","article-title":"Finding your way in the fog: Towards a comprehensive definition of fog computing","volume":"44","author":"Vaquero","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acm Sigcomm Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, S., Li, C., and Li, Q. (2015, January 22). A survey of fog computing: Concepts, applications and issues. Proceedings of the 2015 Workshop on Mobile Big Data, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/2757384.2757397"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10662","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2799707","article-title":"Edge computing architecture for mobile crowdsensing","volume":"6","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4701","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-4701-2013","article-title":"Rainfall estimation using moving cars as rain gauges\u2013laboratory experiments","volume":"17","author":"Rabiei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katsikeas, S., Fysarakis, K., Miaoudakis, A., Van Bemten, A., Askoxylakis, I., Papaefstathiou, I., and Plemenos, A. (2017, January 3\u20136). Lightweight & secure industrial IoT communications via the MQ telemetry transport protocol. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Heraklion, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2017.8024687"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zabasta, A., Kunicina, N., Kondratjevs, K., Patlins, A., Ribickis, L., and Delsing, J. (2018, January 9\u201312). MQTT service broker for enabling the interoperability of smart city systems. Proceedings of the 2018 Energy and Sustainability for Small Developing Economies (ES2DE), Funchal, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ES2DE.2018.8494341"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tantitharanukul, N., Osathanunkul, K., Hantrakul, K., Pramokchon, P., and Khoenkaw, P. (2017, January 1\u20134). MQTT-topics management system for sharing of open data. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Digital Arts, Media and Technology (ICDAMT), Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDAMT.2017.7904935"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2017.12.001","article-title":"Distributed data stream processing and edge computing: A survey on resource elasticity and future directions","volume":"103","author":"Buyya","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2587380","article-title":"A semantic publish-subscribe architecture for the Internet of Things","volume":"3","author":"Roffia","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3420","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2016.2593261","article-title":"Optimal wireless energy charging for incentivized content transfer in mobile publish\u2013subscribe networks","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2016.2647678","article-title":"Distributed load balancing for the resilient publish\/subscribe overlay in sedax","volume":"14","author":"Hoefling","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41607","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2907525","article-title":"Choice of application layer protocols for next generation video surveillance using internet of video things","volume":"7","author":"Sultana","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, M.F., Pham, T.N., Ching, F.H., and Chen, L.H. (2017, January 20\u201322). An Adaptive Solution for Images Streaming in Vehicle Networks using MQTT Protocol. Proceedings of the International Conference on Internet of Things as a Service, Taichung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00410-1_31"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Mahendran, V., and Radhakrishnan, S. (2016, January 5\u201310). Towards SDN-based fog computing: MQTT broker virtualization for effective and reliable delivery. Proceedings of the 2016 8th International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks (COMSNETS), Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rausch, T., Nastic, S., and Dustdar, S. (2018, January 17\u201320). Emma: Distributed qos-aware mqtt middleware for edge computing applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Cloud Engineering (IC2E), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IC2E.2018.00043"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawaguchi, R., and Bandai, M. (2019, January 11\u201313). A distributed MQTT broker system for location-based IoT applications. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCE.2019.8662069"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faticanti, F., De Pellegrini, F., Siracusa, D., Santoro, D., and Cretti, S. (2019, January 21\u201323). Cutting throughput with the edge: App-aware placement in fog computing. Proceedings of the 2019 6th IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Cloud Computing (CSCloud)\/2019 5th IEEE International Conference on Edge Computing and Scalable Cloud (EdgeCom), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSCloud\/EdgeCom.2019.00026"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Shi, L., Furlong, J., and Wang, R. (2013, January 7\u201310). Empirical evaluation of vector bin packing algorithms for energy efficient data centers. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Split, Croatia."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2647","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2013.148","article-title":"Adaptive resource provisioning for the cloud using online bin packing","volume":"63","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishio, T., Shinkuma, R., Takahashi, T., and Mandayam, N.B. (2013, January 29). Service-oriented heterogeneous resource sharing for optimizing service latency in mobile cloud. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Mobile Cloud Computing & Networking, Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1145\/2492348.2492354"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2017.01.012","article-title":"MIST: Fog-based data analytics scheme with cost-efficient resource provisioning for IoT crowdsensing applications","volume":"82","author":"Arkian","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10028","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2935056","article-title":"Joint container placement and task provisioning in dynamic fog computing","volume":"6","author":"Mseddi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121360","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2937553","article-title":"A genetic algorithm-based energy-efficient container placement strategy in CaaS","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s12243-021-00845-z","article-title":"SOSW: Scalable and optimal nearsighted location selection for fog node deployment and routing in SDN-based wireless networks for IoT systems","volume":"76","author":"Ibrar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2018.08.011","article-title":"User incentive model and its optimization scheme in user-participatory fog computing environment","volume":"145","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Networks"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do, C.T., Tran, N.H., Pham, C., Alam, M.G.R., Son, J.H., and Hong, C.S. (2015, January 12\u201314). A proximal algorithm for joint resource allocation and minimizing carbon footprint in geo-distributed fog computing. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN), Siem Reap, Cambodia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOIN.2015.7057905"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3431\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:04:50Z","timestamp":1760137490000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/9\/3431"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22093431"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22093431","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]}}}