{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T21:58:30Z","timestamp":1777499910226,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]],"date-time":"2022-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652227200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Advanced Research of Multispectral Lidar Project","award":["41876105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41876105"]}]},{"name":"Advanced Research of Multispectral Lidar Project","award":["42106180"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42106180"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41876105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41876105"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42106180"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42106180"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the last two decades, Geiger-mode lidar (GML) systems have been developing rapidly in defense and commercial applications, demonstrating high point density and great collection efficiency. We presented a circular scanning GML system simulation model for performance prediction and developed a GML system for civilian mapping. The lidar system used an eye-safe fiber laser at 1545 nm coupled with a 64 \u00d7 64 pixels photon-counting detector array. A real-time data compression algorithm was implanted to reduce half of the data transmission rate and storage space compared to the uncompressing situation. The GML system can operate at aircraft above-ground levels (AGLs) between 0.35 km and 3 km, and at speeds in excess of 220 km\/h. The initial flight tests indicate that the GML system can operate day and night with an area coverage of 366 km2\/h. The standard deviations of the relative altimetric accuracy and the relative planimetric accuracy are 0.131 m and 0.152 m, respectively. The findings presented in this article guide the implementation of designing an airborne GML system and the data compression method.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103656","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,12]],"date-time":"2022-05-12T23:08:36Z","timestamp":1652396916000},"page":"3656","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Simulation and Design of Circular Scanning Airborne Geiger Mode Lidar for High-Resolution Topographic Mapping"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Fanghua","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Department of Guanlan Ocean Science Satellites, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weibiao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiayong","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei 230601, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yongqiang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chongmiao","family":"Jiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meizhong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Space Laser Communication and Detection Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China"},{"name":"Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Degnan, J.J. (2016). Scanning, multibeam, single photon lidars for rapid, large scale, high resolution, topographic and bathymetric mapping. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110958"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.82.7.455","article-title":"First evaluation on single photon-sensitive lidar data","volume":"82","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"9","article-title":"Design and performance of an airborne multikilohertz, photon-counting microlaser altimeter","volume":"34","author":"Degnan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28277","DOI":"10.1038\/srep28277","article-title":"Rapid, high-resolution forest structure and terrain mapping over large areas using single photon lidar","volume":"6","author":"Swatantran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, K., He, Y., Ma, J., Jiang, Z., Hou, C., Chen, W., Zhu, X., Chen, P., Tang, J., and Wu, S. (2020). A dual-wavelength ocean lidar for vertical profiling of oceanic backscatter and attenuation. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172844"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jie, S., and Charles, K.T. (2018). Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning: Principles and Processing, CRC Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"117","article-title":"Second generation airborne 3D imaging lidars based on photon counting","volume":"6771","author":"Degnan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"39","article-title":"Medium altitude airborne geiger-mode mapping LIDAR system","volume":"9465","author":"Clifton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031223","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.56.3.031223","article-title":"Comparison of flash lidar detector options","volume":"7","author":"McManamon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"29","article-title":"Linear LIDAR versus Geiger-mode LIDAR: Impact on data properties and data quality","volume":"Volume 9832","author":"Turner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Laser Radar Technology and Applications XXI"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"133","article-title":"Noisy lidar point clouds: Impact on information extraction in high-precision lidar surveying","volume":"Volume 10636","author":"Turner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Laser Radar Technology and Applications XXIII"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Jutzi, B. (2017, January 11\u201315). Less Photons for more LiDAR? A review from multi-photon-detection to single-photon-detection. Proceedings of the 56th Photogrammetric Week (PhoWo 2017), Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, R., Hartzell, P., and Glennie, C. (2020). Evaluation of SPL100 Single Photon Lidar Data. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12040722"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"194","article-title":"Comparison of full-waveform, single-photon sensitive, and discrete analog LIDAR data","volume":"9465","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-annals-IV-2-W5-397-2019","article-title":"A comparison of single photon and full waveform lidar","volume":"4","author":"Mandlburger","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoker, J.M., Abdullah, Q.A., Nayegandhi, A., and Winehouse, J. (2016). Evaluation of single photon and geiger mode lidar for the 3D elevation program. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090767"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"23","article-title":"Jigsaw: A foliage-penetrating 3D imaging laser radar system","volume":"15","author":"Marino","year":"2005","journal-title":"MIT Linc. Lab. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101502","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5017855","article-title":"Contributed review: Advanced three-dimensional laser radar imaging with the airborne optical systems testbed","volume":"89","author":"Albota","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2022, March 12). MIT Lincoln Laboratory Tech Notes. Available online: https:\/\/archive.ll.mit.edu\/publications\/technotes\/TechNote_ALIRT.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasile, A.N., Skelly, L., Edwards, B., Stowe, L., and Khan, J.M. (2019, January 14\u201318). Photon-counting ladar in support of disaster relief (Conference Presentation). Proceedings of the SPIE, Advanced Photon Counting Techniques XIII, Baltimire, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2520629"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8461","DOI":"10.3390\/s130708461","article-title":"Simulation of a geiger-mode imaging LADAR system for performance assessment","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-3707(02)00045-5","article-title":"Photon-counting multikilohertz microlaser altimeters for airborne and spaceborne topographic measurements","volume":"4","author":"Degnan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouchet, O., and Sizun, H. (2006). Free-Space Optics: Propagation and Communication, Wiley-ISTE. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470612095"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Wilton, S., Kudryashov, I., Itzler, M.A., Entwistle, M., Kotelnikov, J., Katsnelson, A., Piccione, B., Owens, M., and Slomkowski, K. (2018, January 19\u201323). InGaAsP\/InP geiger-mode APD-based LiDAR. Proceedings of the SPIE Nanoscience + Engineering, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2322757"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernard, C., Mills, J., Talaya, J., and Remondino, F. (2019, January 5). Investigation into the potential of single photon airborne laser scanning technology. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Enschede, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-927-2019"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Gonsalves, M.O. (2010). A Comprehensive Uncertainty Analysis and Method of Geometric Calibration for a Circular Scanning Airborne Lidar. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Southern Mississippi]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Peter, F. (2006, January 25\u201327). Toward a rigorous methodology for airborne laser mapping. Proceedings of the International Calibration and Orientation Workshop EuroCOW, Castelldefels, Spain."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keyetieu, R., and Seube, N. (2019). Automatic data selection and boresight adjustment of LiDAR systems. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091087"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2364","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2171974","article-title":"Simultaneous calibration of ALS systems and alignment of Multiview LiDAR scans of urban areas","volume":"50","author":"Hebel","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065107","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/abecec","article-title":"Automatic extrinsic self-calibration of mobile LiDAR systems based on planar and spherical features","volume":"32","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Casella, V., and Spalla, A. (2000, January 16\u201323). Estimation of planimetric accuracy of laser scanning data. Proposal of a method exploiting ramps. Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2022, April 23). Datasheet RIEGL VQ-1560 II. Available online: http:\/\/www.riegl.com\/uploads\/tx_pxpriegldownloads\/RIEGL_VQ-1560II_Datasheet_2022-02-22.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"29","article-title":"Linear LIDAR versus Geiger-mode LIDAR: Impact on data properties and data quality","volume":"9832","author":"Ullrich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3656\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:09:11Z","timestamp":1760137751000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3656"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22103656"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22103656","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,11]]}}}