{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T23:10:03Z","timestamp":1765667403371,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]],"date-time":"2022-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF)","award":["APR20-0023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APR20-0023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wireless Time-Sensitive Networking (WTSN) has emerged as a promising technology for Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications. To meet the latency requirements of WTSN, wireless local area network (WLAN) such as IEEE 802.11 protocol with the time division multiple access (TDMA) mechanism is shown to be a practical solution. In this paper, we propose the RT-WiFiQA protocol with two novel schemes to improve the latency and reliability performance: real-time quality of service (RT-QoS) and fine-grained aggregation (FGA) for TDMA-based 802.11 systems. The RT-QoS is designed to guarantee the quality-of-service requirements of different traffic and to support the FGA mechanism. The FGA mechanism aggregates frames for different stations to reduce the physical layer transmission overhead. The trade-off between the reliability and FGA packet size is analyzed with numerical results. Specifically, we derive a critical threshold such that the FGA can achieve higher reliability when the aggregated packet size is smaller than the critical threshold. Otherwise, the non-aggregation scheme outperforms the FGA scheme. Extensive experiments are conducted on the commercial off-the-shelf 802.11 interface. The experiment results show that compared with the existing TDMA-based 802.11 system, the developed RT-WiFiQA protocol can achieve deterministic bounded real-time latency and greatly improves the reliability performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103901","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T09:18:08Z","timestamp":1653124688000},"page":"3901","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Enabling Real-Time Quality-of-Service and Fine-Grained Aggregation for Wireless TSN"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4099-3057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Litianyi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yifan","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3552, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhibo","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Automation Technology, ABB Corporate Research Sweden, 72178 Vasteras, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Intelligent Systems, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), 10044 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yonghui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Branka","family":"Vucetic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mogensen, R.S., Rodriguez, I., Berardinelli, G., Fink, A., Marcker, R., Markussen, S., Raunholt, T., Kolding, T., Pocovi, G., and Barbera, S. (2019, January 22\u201325). Implementation and Trial Evaluation of a Wireless Manufacturing Execution System for Industry 4.0. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 90th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2019-Fall), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2019.8891231"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). IEEE 802.1 Task Group. Available online: https:\/\/1.ieee802.org\/tsn\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2903414","article-title":"Extending Accurate Time Distribution and Timeliness Capabilities Over the Air to Enable Future Wireless Industrial Automation Systems","volume":"107","author":"Cavalcanti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Carlsson, T. (2022, April 26). Industrial Network Market Shares 2020 According to HMS Networks. Available online: https:\/\/www.hms-networks.com\/news-and-insights\/news-from-hms\/2020\/05\/29\/industrial-network-market-shares-2020-according-to-hms-networks."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Y., Leng, Q., Han, S., Mok, A.K., Zhang, W., and Tomizuka, M. (2013, January 3\u20136). RT-WiFi: Real-Time High-Speed Communication Protocol for Wireless Cyber-Physical Control Applications. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 34th Real-Time Systems Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTSS.2013.22"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djukic, P., and Mohapatra, P. (2009, January 19\u201325). Soft-TDMAC: A software TDMA-based MAC over commodity 802.11 hardware. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2009, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2009.5062104"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4943691","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/4943691","article-title":"Det-WiFi: A multihop TDMA MAC implementation for industrial deterministic applications based on commodity 802.11 hardware","volume":"2017","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2017.2703603","article-title":"Wireless High-Performance Communications: The Challenges and Opportunities of a New Target","volume":"11","author":"Pang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3651","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.3007323","article-title":"w-SHARP: Implementation of a High-Performance Wireless Time-Sensitive Network for Low Latency and Ultra-Low Cycle Time Industrial Applications","volume":"17","author":"Seijo","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, J., Han, S., Mok, A., Chen, D., Lucas, M., Nixon, M., and Pratt, W. (2008, January 22\u201324). WirelessHART: Applying Wireless Technology in Real-Time Industrial Process Control. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RTAS.2008.15"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). ISA100. Available online: http:\/\/www.isa.org\/isa100."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2016.2615261","article-title":"Secure Transmission in Cognitive Satellite Terrestrial Networks","volume":"34","author":"An","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Z., Niu, H., An, K., Wang, Y., Zheng, G., Chatzinotas, S., and Hu, Y. (2022). Refracting RIS Aided Hybrid Satellite-Terrestrial Relay Networks: Joint Beamforming Design and Optimization. IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2022.3155711"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.7497764","article-title":"Wireless Communication for Factory Automation: An opportunity for LTE and 5G systems","volume":"54","author":"Holfeld","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600435CM","article-title":"Latency Critical IoT Applications in 5G: Perspective on the Design of Radio Interface and Network Architecture","volume":"55","author":"Schulz","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2522768","article-title":"Seamless Link-Level Redundancy to Improve Reliability of Industrial Wi-Fi Networks","volume":"12","author":"Cena","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/OJIES.2020.2983259","article-title":"High-Performance Industrial Wireless: Achieving Reliable and Deterministic Connectivity Over IEEE 802.11 WLANs","volume":"1","author":"Aijaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Ind. Electron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). Link Aggregaion. Available online: https:\/\/1.ieee802.org\/tsn\/802-1ax-rev\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2015.2504872","article-title":"On the use of IEEE 802.11 n for industrial communications","volume":"12","author":"Tramarin","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neander, J., Lennvall, T., and Gidlund, M. (2011, January 27\u201330). Prolonging wireless HART network lifetime using packet aggregation. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, Gdansk, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE.2011.5984334"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, F., Zhang, Z., Jia, Z., and Ju, L. (2015, January 24\u201326). Superframe Scheduling for Data Aggregation in WirelessHART Networks. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 17th International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications, 2015 IEEE 7th International Symposium on Cyberspace Safety and Security, and 2015 IEEE 12th International Conference on Embedded Software and Systems, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCC-CSS-ICESS.2015.220"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2535393","article-title":"Scheduling for Source Relaying With Packet Aggregation in Industrial Wireless Networks","volume":"12","author":"Girs","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2897627","article-title":"WIA-FA and Its Applications to Digital Factory: A Wireless Network Solution for Factory Automation","volume":"107","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2005.1453395","article-title":"The IEEE 802.11 g standard for high data rate WLANs","volume":"19","author":"Vassis","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Okech, J., Hamam, Y., Kurien, A., Olwal, T., and Odhiambo, M. (2008). A Dynamic Packet Aggregation Scheme for VoIP in Wireless Mesh Networks. Proc. Int. J. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). Qotom. Available online: https:\/\/www.qotom.net\/."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). About ath9k. Available online: https:\/\/wireless.wiki.kernel.org\/en\/users\/drivers\/ath9k."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kannisto, J., Vanhatupa, T., Hannikainen, M., and Hamalainen, T.D. (2005, January 18). Software and hardware prototypes of the IEEE 1588 precision time protocol on wireless LAN. Proceedings of the 14th IEEE Workshop on Local Metropolitan Area Networks, Crete, Greece."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2022, April 26). Precision Time Protocol Daemon. Available online: http:\/\/ptpd.sourceforge.net\/."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, D., Hart, J., and Fu, Q. (2012, January 9\u201312). On the performance of rate control algorithm minstrel. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 23rd International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications-(PIMRC), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2012.6362819"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2016.2617459","article-title":"Ultra High Performance Wireless Control for Critical Applications: Challenges and Directions","volume":"13","author":"Luvisotto","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c5kerberg, J., Gidlund, M., and Bj\u00f6rkman, M. (2011, January 26\u201329). Future research challenges in wireless sensor and actuator networks targeting industrial automation. Proceedings of the 2011 9th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Informatics, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDIN.2011.6034912"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3901\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:15:48Z","timestamp":1760138148000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3901"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22103901"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22103901","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]}}}