{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T00:26:15Z","timestamp":1760228775183,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653091200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Research Foundation\u2014Flanders (FWO)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["95027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["95027"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is a popular routing layer protocol for multi-hop Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). However, typical RPL configurations are based on decade-old assumptions, leading to a mismatch with: (1) advances in wireless hardware; and (2) growing wireless contention. To soften the impact of external stressors (i.e., jamming and interference), we extended RPL to exploit the capabilities of modern multi-interfaced wireless devices. More specifically, our main contribution is the design, development, and evaluation of a novel RPL Objective Function (OF) which, through simulations, is compared to traditional single-interface approaches and a state-of-the-art multi-interface approach. We examine two scenarios, with and without the injection of jamming, respectively. Our proposed OF is shown to outperform, or otherwise perform similar to, all alternatives considered. In normal conditions, it auto-selects the best interface whilst incurring negligible protocol overhead. In our jamming simulations, it provides stable end-to-end delivery ratios exceeding 90%, whereas the closest alternative averages 65% and is considerably less stable. Given we have open-sourced our development codebase, our solution is an ideal candidate for adoption by RPL deployments that expect to suffer interference from competing technologies or are unable to select the best radio technology a priori.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T09:18:08Z","timestamp":1653124688000},"page":"3906","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["DRiPLOF: An RPL Extension for Multi-Interface Wireless Sensor Networks in Interference-Prone Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4427-6987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robbe","family":"Elsas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IDLab, Department of Information Technology, Ghent University\u2014imec, 9052 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0214-5751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eli","family":"De Poorter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDLab, Department of Information Technology, Ghent University\u2014imec, 9052 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2039-007X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeroen","family":"Hoebeke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDLab, Department of Information Technology, Ghent University\u2014imec, 9052 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2012). IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2014Part 15.4: Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs) Amendment 1: MAC sublayer (Standard No. IEEE Std 802.15.4e-2012 (Amendment to IEEE Std 802.15.4-2011))."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Vilajosana, X., Pister, K., and Watteyne, T. (2017). Minimal IPv6 over the TSCH Mode of IEEE 802.15.4e (6TiSCH) Configuration, IETF. RFC 8180."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Thubert, P. (2021). An Architecture for IPv6 over the Time-Slotted Channel Hopping Mode of IEEE 802.15.4 (6TiSCH), IETF. RFC 9030."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winter, T., Thubert, P., Brandt, A., Hui, J., Kelsey, R., Levis, P., Pister, K., Struik, R., Vasseur, J.P., and Alexander, R. (2012). RPL: IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks, IETF. RFC 6550.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6550"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tabaja, A., and Cohen, R. (July, January 29). When the Network of a Smart City Is Not So Smart. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Conference on Communications and Network Security (CNS \u201920), Avignon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/CNS48642.2020.9162226"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2939407","article-title":"IETF 6TiSCH: A Tutorial","volume":"22","author":"Vilajosana","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shelby, Z., Chakrabarti, S., Nordmark, E., and Bormann, C. (2012). Neighbor Discovery Optimization for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs), IETF. RFC 6775.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6775"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thubert, P., Nordmark, E., Chakrabarti, S., and Perkins, C. (2018). Registration Extensions for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN) Neighbor Discovery, IETF. RFC 8505.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC8505"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lemercier, F., Montavont, N., Toutain, L., Vijayasankar, K., Vedantham, R., and Chiummiento, P. (2016, January 6\u20139). Support for hybrid network in RPL. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm \u201916), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2016.7778815"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lemercier, F., and Montavont, N. (2018, January 5\u20137). Performance Evaluation of an RPL Hybrid Objective Function for the Smart Grid Network. Proceedings of the 2018 17th International Conference on Ad-Hoc Networks and Wireless (ADHOC-NOW \u201918), Saint-Malo, France.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00247-3_3"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gnawali, 0., and Levis, P. (2012). The Minimum Rank with Hysteresis Objective Function, IETF. RFC 6719.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6719"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2022, January 19). Contiki-NG: The OS for Next Generation IoT Devices. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/contiki-ng\/contiki-ng."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2022, January 26). The Cooja Network Simulator. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/contiki-ng\/cooja."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Zolertia (2022, January 26). Zolertia RE-Mote Platform. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/Zolertia\/Resources\/wiki\/RE-Mote."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Tsvetkov, T. (, January July). RPL: IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks. Proceedings of the Seminar \u201cSensor Nodes: Operation, Network and Application\u201d (SN \u201911), Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Vasseur, J.P., Kim, M., Pister, K., Dejean, N., and Barthel, D. (2012). Routing Metrics Used for Path Calculation in Low-Power and Lossy Networks, IETF. RFC 6551."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thubert, P. (2012). Objective Function Zero for the Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL), IETF. RFC 6552.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6552"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hui, J., Vasseur, J.P., Culler, D., and Manral, V. (2012). An IPv6 Routing Header for Source Routes with the Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL), IETF. RFC 6554.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc6554"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thubert, P., Bormann, C., Toutain, L., and Cragie, R. (2017). IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN) Routing Header, IETF. RFC 8138.","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC8138"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2020). IEEE Standard for Low-Rate Wireless Networks (Standard No. IEEE Std 802.15.4-2020 (Revision of IEEE Std 802.15.4-2015))."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1109\/JCN.2019.000027","article-title":"Link Adaptation Strategies for IEEE 802.15.4 WPANs: Protocol Design and Performance Evaluation","volume":"21","author":"Jang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boucetta, C., Nour, B., Moungla, H., and Lahlou, L. (2019, January 9\u201313). An IoT Scheduling and Interference Mitigation Scheme in TSCH Using Latin Rectangles. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM \u201919), Puako, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM38437.2019.9013482"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Krueger, L., Steenbrink, L., and Timm-Giel, A. (2019, January 15\u201316). Avoiding Local Interference in IEEE 802.15.4 TSCH Networks using a Scheduling Function with Distributed Blacklists. Proceedings of the Mobile Communication\u2014Technologies and Applications; 24. ITG-Symposium, Osnabr\u00fcck, Germany,."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2013.6685769","article-title":"Performance of RPL Under Wireless Interference","volume":"51","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-020-01634-z","article-title":"Jamming-Resilient Backup Nodes Selection for RPL-Based Routing in Smart Grid AMI Networks","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mob. Networks Appl."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bezunartea, M., Wang, C., Braeken, A., and Steenhaut, K. (2018, January 9\u201312). Multi-radio Solution for Improving Reliability in RPL. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 29th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC \u201918), Bologna, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2018.8580913"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balmau, O., Dzung, D., Karaa\u01e7a\u00e7, A., Nesovic, V., Paunovic, A., Pignolet, Y.A., and Tehrani, N.A. (2014, January 3\u20136). Evaluation of RPL for Medium Voltage Power Line Communication. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm \u201914), Venice, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2014.7007687"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Narten, T., Nordmark, E., Simpson, W., and Soliman, H. (2007). Neighbor Discovery for IP Version 6 (IPv6), IETF. RFC 4861.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc4861"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomson, S., Narten, T., and Jinmei, T. (2007). IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration, IETF. RFC 4862.","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc4862"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84465","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3085967","article-title":"g6TiSCH: Generalized 6TiSCH for Agile Multi-PHY Wireless Networking","volume":"9","author":"Rady","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2020.102330","article-title":"Adaptive multi-PHY IEEE802.15.4 TSCH in sub-GHz industrial wireless networks","volume":"111","author":"Bauwens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Zolertia (2022, February 22). The Zoul Module. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/Zolertia\/Resources\/wiki\/The-Zoul-module."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, January 31). Java Native Interface Specification Contents. Available online: https:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/8\/docs\/technotes\/guides\/jni\/spec\/jniTOC.html."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Rappaport, T.S. (2002). Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice, Prentice-Hall. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1109\/8.127405","article-title":"914 MHz Path Loss Prediction Models for Indoor Wireless Communications in Multifloored Buildings","volume":"40","author":"Seidel","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaddouri, S., Hajj, M.E., Zaharia, G., and Zein, G.E. (2018, January 9\u201312). Indoor Path Loss Measurements and Modeling in an Open-Space Office at 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz in the Presence of People. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 29th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC \u201918), Bologna, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2018.8580695"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-12-53-2014","article-title":"Indoor radio channel modeling and mitigation of fading effects using linear and circular polarized antennas in combination for smart home system at 868 MHz","volume":"12","author":"Wunderlich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2016.2630035","article-title":"Path-Loss Modeling for Wireless Sensor Networks: A review of models and comparative evaluations","volume":"1","author":"Kurt","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021). IEEE Standard for Information Technology\u2013Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems\u2014Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2013Specific Requirements\u2014Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications (Standard No. IEEE Std 802.11-2020 (Revision of IEEE Std 802.11-2016))."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2020). TS1-1.0.4 (Rev. 1.0.4) (Standard No. LoRaWAN L2 1.0.4 Specification)."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Cam-Winget, N., Hui, J., and Popa, D. (2017). Applicability Statement for the Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) in Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) Networks, IETF. RFC 8036."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3906\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:16:04Z","timestamp":1760138164000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/10\/3906"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s22103906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22103906","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]}}}