{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T11:34:09Z","timestamp":1784806449665,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653091200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)","award":["#1841650"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#1841650"]}]},{"name":"U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)","award":["#2034418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#2034418"]}]},{"name":"U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)","award":["2020-67021-32799"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-67021-32799"]}]},{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture","award":["#1841650"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#1841650"]}]},{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture","award":["#2034418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#2034418"]}]},{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture","award":["2020-67021-32799"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-67021-32799"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSNs) that collect geospatial in situ sensor data are a backbone of internet-of-things (IoT) applications for agriculture and terrestrial ecology. In this paper, we first show how WUSNs can operate reliably under field conditions year-round and at the same time be used for determining and mapping soil conditions from the buried sensor nodes. We demonstrate the design and deployment of a 23-node WUSN installed at an agricultural field site that covers an area with a 530 m radius. The WUSN has continuously operated since September 2019, enabling real-time monitoring of soil volumetric water content (VWC), soil temperature (ST), and soil electrical conductivity. Secondly, we present data collected over a nine-month period across three seasons. We evaluate the performance of a deep learning algorithm in predicting soil VWC using various combinations of the received signal strength (RSSI) from each buried wireless node, above-ground pathloss, the distance between wireless node and receive antenna (D), ST, air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH), and precipitation as input parameters to the model. The AT, RH, and precipitation were obtained from a nearby weather station. We find that a model with RSSI, D, AT, ST, and RH as inputs was able to predict soil VWC with an R2 of 0.82 for test datasets, with a Root Mean Square Error of \u00b10.012 (m3\/m3). Hence, a combination of deep learning and other easily available soil and climatic parameters can be a viable candidate for replacing expensive soil VWC sensors in WUSNs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103913","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]],"date-time":"2022-05-22T07:13:57Z","timestamp":1653203637000},"page":"3913","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["A Wireless Underground Sensor Network Field Pilot for Agriculture and Ecology: Soil Moisture Mapping Using Signal Attenuation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Srinivasa","family":"Balivada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory","family":"Grant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xufeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"},{"name":"Center for Nanoscale Materials, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"},{"name":"The Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monisha","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Supratik","family":"Guha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roser","family":"Matamala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Consortium for Advanced Science and Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Environmental Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phycom.2009.03.004","article-title":"Signal propagation techniques for wireless underground communication networks","volume":"2","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. 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