{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T16:00:46Z","timestamp":1784390446080,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,27]],"date-time":"2022-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fisheries Agency of Taiwan, R.O.C.","award":["110AS-6.2.1-FA-F6."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["110AS-6.2.1-FA-F6."]}]},{"name":"Fisheries Agency of Taiwan, R.O.C.","award":["111AS -6.1.1-FA-F6."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111AS -6.1.1-FA-F6."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The ocean resources have been rapidly depleted in the recent decade, and the complementary role of aquaculture to food security has become more critical than ever before. Water quality is one of the key factors in determining the success of aquaculture and real-time water quality monitoring is an important process for aquaculture. This paper proposes a low-cost and easy-to-build artificial intelligence (AI) buoy system that autonomously measures the related water quality data and instantly forwards them via wireless channels to the shore server. Furthermore, the data provide aquaculture staff with real-time water quality information and also assists server-side AI programs in implementing machine learning techniques to further provide short-term water quality predictions. In particular, we aim to provide a low-cost design by combining simple electronic devices and server-side AI programs for the proposed buoy system to measure water velocity. As a result, the cost for the practical implementation is approximately USD 2015 only to facilitate the proposed AI buoy system to measure the real-time data of dissolved oxygen, salinity, water temperature, and velocity. In addition, the AI buoy system also offers short-term estimations of water temperature and velocity, with mean square errors of 0.021 \u00b0C and 0.92 cm\/s, respectively. Furthermore, we replaced the use of expensive current meters with a flow sensor tube of only USD 100 to measure water velocity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22114078","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,31]],"date-time":"2022-05-31T02:30:06Z","timestamp":1653964206000},"page":"4078","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["A Low-Cost AI Buoy System for Monitoring Water Quality at Offshore Aquaculture Cages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9831-7588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hoang-Yang","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chih-Yung","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4752-0460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shyi-Chyi","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu-Hao","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wen-Chen","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei-Lin","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fan-Hua","family":"Nan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shun-Hsyung","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microelectronics Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and and Technology, Kaohsiung 811213, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naomi A.","family":"Ubina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202301, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"144","article-title":"Global warming: A review of the debates on the causes, consequences and politics of global response","volume":"10","author":"Berlie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ghana J. 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