{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T06:25:39Z","timestamp":1761719139378,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]],"date-time":"2022-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654560000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rail interlocking systems follow the progress of technology and train speeds. Nowadays, new systems are designed based on microcontrollers and reliable software, requiring many hours of testing to ensure their proper functionality and bug-free coding. However, in many countries, there are still older relay solutions implemented that are not envisaged to be upgraded in the near future partially due to costs but mainly due to the fact they function very well, being based on a highly reliable element: the relay. However, specialized maintenance personnel are becoming more difficult to find, so automation systems that check the proper relay functionality are a key element to ensure a longer lifetime of existing systems. In this article, the authors present a monitoring solution based on magnetic sensors that proved capable of provide reliable information about the relays, hence revealing the first step in a relay automated control system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22124314","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,13]],"date-time":"2022-06-13T02:01:44Z","timestamp":1655085704000},"page":"4314","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Applicability of Magnetic Sensors in Interlocking Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0954-7400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R\u0103zvan Andrei","family":"Gheorghiu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Transport Faculty, POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9630-6095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florin","family":"B\u0103d\u0103u","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Transport Faculty, POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}]},{"given":"Valentin","family":"Iordache","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Transport Faculty, POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2020.1728419","article-title":"Resilience in railway transport systems: A literature review and research agenda","volume":"40","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L. (2020, January 11\u201313). The Past, Present and Future of Railway Interlocking System. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 5th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Engineering (ICITE), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITE50838.2020.9231438"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Preu\u00df, E. (2012). Stellwerke Deutscher Eisenbahnen Seit 1870, Transpress Verlag."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Anders, E., Berndt, T., Dolgij, I., Ivan\u010denko, V., Lykov, A., M\u00e1rton, P., Maschek, U., Mongardi, G., Nasedkin, O., and Nikitin, A. (2018). Railway Signalling & Interlocking: International Compendium, PMC Media International Publishing. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Efanov, D., Lykov, A., and Osadchy, G. (October, January 29). Testing of relay-contact circuits of railway signalling and interlocking. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE East-West Design & Test Symposium (EWDTS), Novi Sad, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EWDTS.2017.8110095"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Pachl, J. (2021). Railway Signalling Principles, Technische Universit\u00e4t Braunschweig. Available online: http:\/\/www.joernpachl.de\/rsp.htm."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Pachl, J. (2018). Railway Operation and Control, VTD Rail Publishing. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e4ckman, R., Oliver, I., and Limonta, G. (2020, January 15\u201318). Integrity Checking of Railway Interlocking Firmware. Proceedings of the Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security. SAFECOMP 2020 Workshops, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-55583-2_12"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"International Union of Railways (2018). Use of Signalling Relays, ETF Publication."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amendola, A., Becchi, A., Cavada, R., Cimatti, A., Ferrando, A., Pilati, L., Scaglione, G., Tacchella, A., and Zamboni, M. (2022). NORMA: A tool for the analysis of Relay-based Railway Interlocking Systems. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Proceedings of the Tools and Algorithms for the Construction and Analysis of Systems. TACAS 2022, Munich, Germany, 2\u20137 April 2022, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-99524-9_7"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haxthausen, A.E., Kj\u00e6r, A.A., and Le Bliguet, M. (2011). Formal Development of a Tool for Automated Modelling and Verification of Relay Interlocking Systems. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Proceedings of the FM 2011: Formal Methods, Limerick, Ireland, 20\u201324 June 2011, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-21437-0_11"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.2495\/TDI-V4-N3-218-229","article-title":"Towards safe and secure computer based railway interlocking systems","volume":"4","author":"Martinez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Transp. Dev. Integr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonacchi, A., Fantechi, A., Bacherini, S., Tempestini, M., and Cipriani, L. (2013). Validation of Railway Interlocking Systems by Formal Verification, A Case Study. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Proceedings of the Software Engineering and Formal Methods, SEFM 2013, Madrid, Spain, 23\u201327 September 2013, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05032-4_18"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"19","article-title":"Verification of railway interlocking systems","volume":"Volume 184","author":"Busard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings 4th International Workshop on Engineering Safety and Security Systems, ESSS 2015, Oslo, Norway, 22 June 2015"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Limbree, C., Cappart, Q., Pecheur, C., and Tonetta, S. (2016). Verification of railway interlocking\u2014Compositional approach with OCRA. Reliability, Safety, and Security of Railway Systems. Modelling, Analysis, Verification, and Certification. First International Conference, RSSRail 2016, Paris, France, 28\u201330 June 2016, Proceedings, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-33951-1_10"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Havryliuk, V. (2019, January 2\u20136). The Wavelet Based Detecting of the Signalling Relay Armature Defects. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 2nd Ukraine Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (UKRCON), Lviv, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/UKRCON.2019.8879960"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Havryliuk, V. (2017). Fault Diagnosis for Electromagnetic Relay Using Discrete Wavelet Transform and Wavelet Packet Entropy, Wydawnictwo Wy\u017cszej Szko\u0142y Technicznej w Katowicach. Available online: http:\/\/eadnurt.diit.edu.ua\/jspui\/handle\/123456789\/10608."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Efanov, D.V., Osadchy, G.V., and Khoroshev, V.V. (2018, January 14\u201317). Testing of Optical Sensors in Measuring Systems on Railway Marshalling Yard. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE East-West Design & Test Symposium (EWDTS), Kazan, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EWDTS.2018.8524798"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2020.103323","article-title":"Wireless cement-based sensor for self-monitoring of railway concrete infrastructures","volume":"119","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iwasawa, N., Kawamura, T., Iwaki, N., Ryuo, S., and Nozue, M. (2019). Design of Wireless Sensor Network in the Railway Facilities. Communications in Computer and Information Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.5220\/0006638101220127"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Cormo\u0219, A.C., Iordache, V., and Surugiu, C.M. (2011). Materiale \u0219i Componente Pasive Electronice\u2014No\u021biuni Fundamentale, Cartea Studen\u021beasc\u0103."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2022, January 03). ElectronicsTutorials, \u201cThe Inductor,\u201d [Interactive]. Available online: https:\/\/www.electronics-tutorials.ws\/inductor\/inductor.html."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Young, H.D., and Freedman, R.A. (2012). Sears and Zemansky\u2019s University Physics with Modern Physics, Addison-Wesley. [13th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basharat, M., Ding, M., Cai, H., Li, Y., and Fang, J. (2017). Design and Analysis of Multilayer Solenoid Coil for Faraday Modulator. MATEC Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences.","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201711404004"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2020.100466","article-title":"Magpylib: A free Python package for magnetic field computation","volume":"11","author":"Ortner","year":"2020","journal-title":"SoftwareX"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Ortner, M. (2022, January 06). Magpylib Documentation Release 3.0.2, [Interactive]. Available online: https:\/\/magpylib.readthedocs.io\/_\/downloads\/en\/stable\/pdf\/."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Stan, A.I., and David, S. (1983). Centraliz\u0103ri Electrodinamice \u0219i Bloc de Linie Automat, Editura Didactic\u0103 \u0219i Pedagogic\u0103."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Freescale Semiconductor (2022, May 25). Xtrinsic MAG3110 Three-Axis, Digital Magnetometer. MAG3110 Rev. 9.2. NXP. Available online: https:\/\/www.nxp.com\/docs\/en\/data-sheet\/MAG3110.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sparkfun (2021, December 27). \u201cSparkFun Triple Axis Magnetometer Breakout\u2014MAG3110, [Interactive]. Available online: https:\/\/www.sparkfun.com\/products\/retired\/12670."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Luuk, I. (2022, January 22). Logging Arduino Serial Output to CSV\/Excel (Windows\/Mac\/Linux), [Interactive]. Available online: https:\/\/circuitjournal.com\/arduino-serial-to-spreadsheet."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Centers, N. (2022, May 25). World Magnetic Model\u2014Maps of Magnetic Elements, Noaa.gov, Published 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/geomag\/WMM\/image.shtml."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/12\/4314\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:25:20Z","timestamp":1760138720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/12\/4314"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s22124314"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22124314","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]]}}}