{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T15:41:26Z","timestamp":1779291686009,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]],"date-time":"2022-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014Brasil (CAPES)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lower renewable energy generator prices are leading people to install solar panels to reduce their electricity bills or, in some cases, even sell the surplus generated energy to the grid and earn credits from the grid operator. Generally, they are limited to trading the energy they generate with the grid company, which has a dominant role in price determination. Decentralized energy markets might increase both market competitiveness and incentive to further people\u2019s adoption of renewable energy, reducing security vulnerabilities and improving resiliency. Blockchain is a widely studied technology to provide decentralization for energy markets in this context. Scalability, privacy, market design, and user security are some of the open research topics. This work analyzes the literature related to blockchain and energy markets, proposes a model, implements it, performs experiments, and analyzes network scalability and data generation. The model, implemented with Hyperledger Fabric, enables validated clean energy trading with anonymized buyers to prevent consumption pattern exposure. The maximum transaction throughput was achieved with 5000 sensors, 5000 buyers, and 5000 sellers. The data generation rate by network and the baseline deployment costs were also analyzed to judge the network viability. Furthermore, this work provides empirical results on a topic that the literature lacks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22124585","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,19]],"date-time":"2022-06-19T21:19:26Z","timestamp":1655673566000},"page":"4585","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Blockchain Privacy and Scalability in a Decentralized Validated Energy Trading Context with Hyperledger Fabric"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7544-3047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johann","family":"Westphall","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Security Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florian\u00f3polis 88040-370, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4104-1741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean Everson","family":"Martina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computer Security Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florian\u00f3polis 88040-370, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67189","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2874539","article-title":"Bitcoin Concepts, Threats, and Machine-Learning Security Solutions","volume":"6","author":"Rahouti","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, N., Zhou, X., Lu, X., Guan, Z., Wu, L., Du, X., and Guizani, M. (2019). When Energy Trading Meets Blockchain in Electrical Power System: The State of the Art. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9081561"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johanning, S., and Bruckner, T. (2019, January 18\u201320). Blockchain-based Peer-to-Peer Energy Trade: A Critical Review of Disruptive Potential. Proceedings of the 2019 16th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Ljubljana, Slovenia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EEM.2019.8916268"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, Z., Li, Y., Cao, Y., Zhao, Y., Zhong, J., Sidorov, D., and Zeng, X. (2020). Blockchain Technology for Information Security of the Energy Internet: Fundamentals, Features, Strategy and Application. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13040881"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.10.014","article-title":"Blockchain technology in the energy sector: A systematic review of challenges and opportunities","volume":"100","author":"Andoni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yaga, D., Mell, P., Roby, N., and Scarfone, K. (2018). Blockchain technology overview. arXiv.","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.IR.8202"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102078","article-title":"A survey of empirical performance evaluation of permissioned blockchain platforms: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"100","author":"Dabbagh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Team, F.D. (2020, September 01). A Blockchain Platform for the Enterprise. Available online: https:\/\/hyperledger-fabric.readthedocs.io\/en\/release-2.3\/."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1504\/IJSNET.2018.096264","article-title":"SmartData: An IoT-ready API for sensor networks","volume":"28","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sens. Netw. (IJSNET)"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"LISHA (2021, February 01). EPOS 2 User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/epos.lisha.ufsc.br\/IoT+Platform#SmartData."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pee, S.J., Kang, E.S., Song, J.G., and Jang, J.W. (2019, January 11\u201313). Blockchain based smart energy trading platform using smart contract. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Information and Communication (ICAIIC), Okinawa, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAIIC.2019.8668978"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, E.S., Pee, S.J., Song, J.G., and Jang, J.W. (2018, January 27\u201330). A Blockchain-Based Energy Trading Platform for Smart Homes in a Microgrid. Proceedings of the 2018 3rd International Conference on Computer and Communication Systems (ICCCS), Nagoya, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCOMS.2018.8463317"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, X., Guan, Z., Zhou, X., Du, X., Wu, L., and Guizani, M. (2019, January 10\u201312). A Secure and Efficient Renewable Energy Trading Scheme Based on Blockchain in Smart Grid. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 21st International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications, IEEE 17th International Conference on Smart City, IEEE 5th International Conference on Data Science and Systems (HPCC\/SmartCity\/DSS), Zhangjiajie, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/HPCC\/SmartCity\/DSS.2019.00253"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, S.M.S., Farooq, S.M., and Ustun, T.S. (2019, January 22\u201323). Implementation of Blockchain technology for Energy Trading with Smart Meters. Proceedings of the 2019 Innovations in Power and Advanced Computing Technologies (i-PACT), Vellore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/i-PACT44901.2019.8960243"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, A., Islam, M.T., and Ferdous, A. (2019, January 7\u20139). Towards Blockchain-based Electricity Trading System and Cyber Resilient Microgrids. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE), Cox\u2019sBazar, Bangladesh.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECACE.2019.8679442"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorri, A., Hill, A., Kanhere, S., Jurdak, R., Luo, F., and Dong, Z.Y. (2019, January 14\u201317). Peer-to-Peer EnergyTrade: A Distributed Private Energy Trading Platform. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751268"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kodali, R.K., Yerroju, S., and Yogi, B.Y.K. (2018, January 28\u201331). Blockchain Based Energy Trading. Proceedings of the TENCON 2018\u20142018 IEEE Region 10 Conference, Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2018.8650447"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2019.2916565","article-title":"Energy Crowdsourcing and Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading in Blockchain-Enabled Smart Grids","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, Cybern. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Pool, N. (2020, May 01). See What Nord Pool Can Offer You. Available online: https:\/\/www.nordpoolgroup.com\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeon, J.M., and Hong, C.S. (2019, January 18\u201320). A Study on Utilization of Hybrid Blockchain for Energy Sharing in Micro-Grid. Proceedings of the 2019 20th Asia-Pacific Network Operations and Management Symposium (APNOMS), Matsue, Japan.","DOI":"10.23919\/APNOMS.2019.8893033"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Z., Suankaewmanee, K., Kang, J., Niyato, D., and Sin, N.P. (2019, January 10\u201312). Development of Reliable Wireless Communication System for Secure Blockchain-based Energy Trading. Proceedings of the 2019 16th International Joint Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE), Chonburi, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/JCSSE.2019.8864210"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Blom, F. (2018). A Feasibility Study of Blockchain Technology As Local Energy Market Infrastructure. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Abidin, A., Aly, A., Cleemput, S., and Mustafa, M.A. (2018). Secure and Privacy-Friendly Local Electricity Trading and Billing in Smart Grid. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.109488","article-title":"Exploring blockchain for the energy transition: Opportunities and challenges based on a case study in Japan","volume":"117","author":"Ahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caldarelli, G. (2020, January 24\u201327). Real-world blockchain applications under the lens of the oracle problem. A systematic literature review. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Technology Management, Operations and Decisions (ICTMOD), Marrakech, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTMOD49425.2020.9380598"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Westphall, J. (2021, April 01). Energy Network\u2014Developed in Hyperledger Fabric. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/johannww\/EnergyNetwork."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foschini, L., Gavagna, A., Martuscelli, G., and Montanari, R. (2020, January 7\u201311). Hyperledger Fabric Blockchain: Chaincode Performance Analysis. Proceedings of the ICC 2020\u20142020 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC40277.2020.9149080"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Team, F.D. (2021, February 01). CouchDB as the State Database. Available online: https:\/\/hyperledger-fabric.readthedocs.io\/en\/latest\/couchdb_as_state_database.html."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Team, F. (2020, December 01). Hyperledger Fabric Gateway SDK for Java. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/fabric-gateway-java."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Team, F. (2020, December 01). Hyperledger Fabric SDK for Java. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/hyperledger\/fabric-sdk-java."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moon, S.J., Park, I.H., Lee, B.S., and Ju Wook, J. (2019, January 10\u201312). A Hyperledger-based P2P Energy Trading Scheme using Cloud Computing with Low Capabillity Devices. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Smart Cloud (SmartCloud), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartCloud.2019.00039"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ycharts (2021, July 01). Ethereum Average Transaction Fee. Available online: https:\/\/ycharts.com\/indicators\/ethereum_average_transaction_fee."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westphall, J., Loffi, L., Westphall, C.M., and Everson Martina, J. (2020, January 9\u201311). CoAP + DTLS: A Comprehensive Overview of Cryptographic Performance on an IOT Scenario. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS48726.2020.9220033"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorenflo, C., Lee, S., Golab, L., and Keshav, S. (2019). FastFabric: Scaling Hyperledger Fabric to 20,000 Transactions per Second. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751452"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/12\/4585\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:34:17Z","timestamp":1760139257000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/12\/4585"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s22124585"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22124585","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]]}}}