{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T16:23:53Z","timestamp":1781022233386,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trends for the digital transformation of metrology and regulation of metrology through IT have some keywords in common with the main properties of the blockchain, such as traceability, immutability, and machine-readable documents. The possible applicability of the blockchain as an innovative IT solution for metrology regulation is known in the scientific community. Still, blockchain implementation must consider the entire metrology pyramid\u2014the technical aspects and the legal framework intrinsic to metrology. This is also valid for possible IoT blockchain applications. In resolving the issues, this paper applies a bottom-up approach, starting from IoT devices analyzed as oracles and building up to the sole definition of measurement units, thereby discussing technical aspects concerning relevant standardization documents. The resulting trust model concept encompasses the vertical and horizontal traceability of the measurement results (oracle data), where normative standards and legal requirements are crucial for building trust. Conclusively, for practical implementations, it will be necessary to analyze blockchain properties and applicability with a view to the standard requirements, as shown for WELMEC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134708","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T23:11:19Z","timestamp":1655939479000},"page":"4708","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Trust Model Concept for IoT Blockchain Applications as Part of the Digital Transformation of Metrology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8896-5071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kruno","family":"Mili\u010devi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and IT Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luka","family":"Omr\u010den","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and IT Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mirko","family":"Kohler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and IT Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7867-3385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivica","family":"Luki\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and IT Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. (2022, June 11). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. Available online: https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oyinloye, D., Teh, J., Jamil, N., and Alawida, M. (2021). Blockchain Consensus: An Overview of Alternative Protocols. Symmetry, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym13081363"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caldarelli, G. (2020). Understanding the Blockchain Oracle Problem: A Call for Action. Information, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/info11110509"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Evaluation of Measurement Data-Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM). Available online: https:\/\/www.bipm.org\/documents\/20126\/2071204\/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). International Vocabulary of Metrology. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM). Available online: https:\/\/www.bipm.org\/documents\/20126\/54295284\/VIM4_CD_210111c.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measen.2021.100122","article-title":"A digital framework for metrological information","volume":"18","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meas. Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.110309","article-title":"Why a digital framework for the SI?","volume":"187","author":"Brown","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Joint Statement of Intent on the Digital Transformation in the International Scientific and Quality Infrastructure. Available online: https:\/\/www.bipm.org\/en\/liaison\/digital-transformation."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Webinar: Digital Transformation in Legal Metrology. Available online: https:\/\/www.oiml.org\/en\/news-meetings\/oiml-seminars\/digital-transformation\/digital-transformation-in-legal-metrology."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asif, M., Aziz, Z., Bin Ahmad, M., Khalid, A., Waris, H.A., and Gilani, A. (2022). Blockchain-Based Authentication and Trust Management Mechanism for Smart Cities. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072604"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alkhateeb, A., Catal, C., Kar, G., and Mishra, A. (2022). Hybrid Blockchain Platforms for the Internet of Things (IoT): A Systematic Literature Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041304"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5771","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2021.3136580","article-title":"A Hybrid Blockchain-Based Log Management Scheme with Nonrepudiation for Smart Grids","volume":"18","author":"Le","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peters, D., Wetzlich, J., Thiel, F., and Seifert, J.-P. (2018, January 14\u201317). Blockchain applications for legal metrology. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2018.8409668"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moni, M., Melo, W., Peters, D., and Machado, R. (2021). When Measurements Meet Blockchain: On Behalf of an Inter-NMI Network. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051564"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melo, W., Machado, R.C.S., Peters, D., and Moni, M. (2020, January 3\u20135). Public-Key Infrastructure for Smart Meters using Blockchains. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Industry 4.0 & IoT, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroInd4.0IoT48571.2020.9138246"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Buterin, V. (2022, May 26). A Next-Generation Smart Contract and Decentralized Application Platform. Ethereum Whitepaper. Available online: https:\/\/cryptorating.eu\/whitepapers\/Ethereum\/Ethereum_white_paper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Szabo, N. (2022, May 26). Smart Contracts. Available online: https:\/\/www.fon.hum.uva.nl\/rob\/Courses\/InformationInSpeech\/CDROM\/Literature\/LOTwinterschool2006\/szabo.best.vwh.net\/smart.contracts.html."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1177\/0268396220924669","article-title":"Is code law? Current legal and technical adoption issues and remedies for blockchain-enabled smart contracts","volume":"35","author":"Drummer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C.-L., Deng, Y.-Y., Tsaur, W.-J., Li, C.-T., Lee, C.-C., and Wu, C.-M. (2021). A Traceable Online Insurance Claims System Based on Blockchain and Smart Contract Technology. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13169386"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measen.2021.100282","article-title":"PDF\/A-3 solution for digital calibration certificates","volume":"18","author":"Boschung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Meas. Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, C., Elo, T., Hovhannisyan, K., Hutzschenreuter, D., Kuosmanen, P., Maennel, O., Mustapaa, T., Nikander, P., and Wiedenhoefer, T. (2020, January 3\u20135). Infrastructure for Digital Calibration Certificates. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Industry 4.0 & IoT, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroInd4.0IoT48571.2020.9138220"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Principles for the Establishment of Hierarchy Schemes for Measuring Instruments, International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML). Available online: https:\/\/www.oiml.org\/en\/files\/pdf_d\/d005-e82.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mammadzada, K., Iqbal, M., Milani, F., Garc\u00eda-Ba\u00f1uelos, L., and Matulevi\u010dius, R. (2020). Blockchain Oracles: A Framework for Blockchain-Based Applications. Business Process Management: Blockchain and Robotic Process Automation Forum, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58779-6_2"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Melo, W.S. (2021). Blockchains and Legal Metrology: Applications and Possibilities. OIML Bulletin, Available online: https:\/\/www.oiml.org\/en\/publications\/bulletin\/pdf\/oiml_bulletin_july_2021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Chainlink. What Is the Blockchain Oracle Problem?. Available online: https:\/\/blog.chain.link\/what-is-the-blockchain-oracle-problem\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.53106\/160792642021072204007","article-title":"A Systematic Literature Review of Blockchain Technology: Security Properties, Applications and Challenges","volume":"22","author":"Le","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Internet Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MPOT.2018.2850541","article-title":"Proof of Authentication: IoT-Friendly Blockchains","volume":"38","author":"Puthal","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Potentials"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). WELMEC Software Guide 7.2. Measuring Instruments Directive 2014\/32\/EU. Available online: https:\/\/www.welmec.org\/welmec\/documents\/guides\/7.2\/2020\/WELMEC_Guide_7.2_v2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"2250","article-title":"IoT implementation using secure communication protocols","volume":"7","author":"Shamsi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2015.01.006","article-title":"Survey on secure communication protocols for the Internet of Things","volume":"32","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Immler, V., Obermaier, J., Konig, M., Hiller, M., and Sig, G. (May, January 30). B-TREPID: Batteryless tamper-resistant envelope with a PUF and integrity detection. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Hardware Oriented Security and Trust, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1109\/TVLSI.2017.2762630","article-title":"The Low Area Probing Detector as a Countermeasure Against Invasive Attacks","volume":"26","author":"Weiner","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, F., He, H., Xiao, N., and Liu, F. (2011, January 14\u201316). Board-level authentication through I\/O fingerprinter. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communications and Computing, Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSPCC.2011.6061646"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anjum, N., Hammad, S., and Faheem, M. (2018, January 9\u201313). Passive design technique for tamper-resistant embedded system. Proceedings of the 15th International Bhurban Conference on Applied Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IBCAST.2018.8312259"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, T., and Park, T.-H. (2020). Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) Design for Vehicle Position Tracking Using Reliability Function of Radar and Lidar. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20154126"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yazdkhasti, S., and Sasiadek, J. (2018). Multi Sensor Fusion Based on Adaptive Kalman Filtering. Advances in Aerospace Guidance, Navigation and Control, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-65283-2_17"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Cardano White Paper. Available online: https:\/\/whitepaper.io\/document\/581\/cardano-whitepaper."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Solana White Paper. Available online: https:\/\/solana.com\/solana-whitepaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). IOTA Data Marketplace. Available online: https:\/\/blog.iota.org\/part-1-iota-data-marketplace-update-5f6a8ce96d05\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). Nokia Data Marketplace. Available online: https:\/\/www.nokia.com\/networks\/services\/data-marketplace\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoo, H., and Ko, N. (2020, January 21\u201323). Blockchain based Data Marketplace System. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Convergence, Jeju Island, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTC49870.2020.9289087"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). A Universal and Flexible Structure for Digital Calibration Certificates (DCC). Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/3696567#.YrKHvSdBxPY."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Wollensack, M. (2022, May 26). Metas E-Certificate. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/metas-ch\/metas-ecertificate."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). National Metrology Systems Developing the Institutional and Legislative Framework. International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Available online: https:\/\/www.bipm.org\/documents\/20126\/42177518\/National-Metrology-Systems.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2019.2898013","article-title":"Using Blockchains to Implement Distributed Measuring Systems","volume":"68","author":"Melo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melo, W., Carmo, L.F.R.C., Bessani, A., Neves, N., and Santin, A. (2018, January 14\u201317). How blockchains can improve measuring instruments regulation and control. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2018.8409724"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022, May 26). General Requirements for Software Controlled Measuring Instruments. The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML). Available online: https:\/\/www.oiml.org\/en\/files\/pdf_d\/d031-e08.pdf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/4708\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:37:26Z","timestamp":1760139446000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/4708"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22134708"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22134708","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]}}}