{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T17:17:43Z","timestamp":1774113463782,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,24]],"date-time":"2022-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656028800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"state task","award":["\u2116 0705-2020-0044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u2116 0705-2020-0044"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this article, we study the possibility of gas turbine unit (GTU) monitoring using interferometric fiber optic sensors. We used the Mach\u2013Zehnder interferometer (MZI) scheme, which can be easily implemented and simply installed on the turbine, and also allows us to solve the problem of phase unwrapping conveniently. In this research, the following main steps were carried out: an experimental scheme based on the MZI was assembled, and its sensitive arm was fixed on the GTU under study; data on various operation modes of the GTU was collected; the data were subjected to frequency FFT analysis, based on which the main rotational speeds of the turbine were identified. With FFT analysis, we also demonstrated multiples harmonics, which appear in the case of GTU after operating time, caused by the number of blades. The possibility of GTU monitoring and analysis using a non-invasive compact fiber-optic sensor is demonstrated: spectral analysis is used to detect the rotor speed, as well as the presence or absence of high-order multiple frequencies indicating blade and bearing defects, which are determined by the number of GTU\u2019s blades and rolling bearing used as turbines rotor supports.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134781","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,26]],"date-time":"2022-06-26T22:50:23Z","timestamp":1656283823000},"page":"4781","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Non-Invasive Acoustic Monitoring of Gas Turbine Units by Fiber Optic Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Konstantin V.","family":"Stepanov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6772-1572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrey A.","family":"Zhirnov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Kotelnikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of RAS, Mokhovaya 11-7, 125009 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stanislav G.","family":"Sazonkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexey B.","family":"Pnev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexander N.","family":"Bobrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dmitriy A.","family":"Yagodnikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya 5-1, 105005 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Lehto, S., and Leno, J. (2010). Chrysler\u2019s Turbine Car: The Rise and Fall of Detroit\u2019s Coolest Creation, Chicago Review Press."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"96","article-title":"Operational parametric diagnostics of the technical condition of gas turbine engines","volume":"1","author":"Perevoshchikov","year":"2011","journal-title":"News High. Educ. Inst. Oil Gas"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Kiselev, Y.V., and Epishev, N.I. (2007). Diagnosis of Gas Turbine Engines and Their Components by Thermogasdynamic and Vibroacoustic Parameters, Publishing House SSAU. (In Russian)."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Naidenov, A.V. (2013). Parametric diagnostics of the technical condition of a gas turbine plant. New Technol. Oil Gas Reg., 251\u2013254. (In Russian)."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutz, F.J., Boje, S., Orth, U., Koch, A.W., and Roths, J. (2020). High-Temperature Profile Monitoring in Gas Turbine Exhaust-Gas Diffusors with Six-Point Fiber-Optic Sensor Array. Int. J. Turbomach. Propuls. Power, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijtpp5040025"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"40","article-title":"Component model-based condition monitoring of a gas turbine","volume":"5","author":"Ogbonnaya","year":"2010","journal-title":"ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"92","article-title":"Detailed diagnostics of the technical condition of gas turbine engines by their effective power","volume":"5","author":"Perevoshchikov","year":"2014","journal-title":"News High. Educ. Inst. Oil Gas"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"134","article-title":"Diagnostics of the technical condition of gas turbine plants based on parametric data","volume":"6","author":"Perevoshchikov","year":"2017","journal-title":"News High. Educ. Inst. Oil Gas"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"63","article-title":"The method of operational parametric diagnostics of a gas compressor unit during operation","volume":"5","author":"Chichugin","year":"2011","journal-title":"News High. Educ. Inst. Oil Gas"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roemer, M.J., and Atkinson, B. (1997, January 2\u20135). Real-time health monitoring and diagnostics for gas turbine engines. Proceedings of the ASME 1997 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/97-GT-030"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Rahmoune, M.B., Hafaifa, A., Kouzou, A., Guemana, M., and Abudura, S. (2016, January 15\u201317). Control and diagnostic of vibration in gas turbine system using neural network approach. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Modelling, Identification and Control (ICMIC), Algiers, Algeria."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2019.109396","article-title":"Non-destructive diagnostic of aircraft engine blades by Fuzzy Decision Tree","volume":"197","author":"Rabcan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matcom.2020.07.017","article-title":"Gas turbine monitoring using neural network dynamic nonlinear autoregressive with external exogenous input modelling","volume":"179","author":"Rahmoune","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Comput. Simul."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s42417-021-00373-z","article-title":"Fuzzy Diagnostic Strategy Implementation for Gas Turbine Vibrations Faults Detection: Towards a Characterization of Symptom\u2014Fault Correlations","volume":"10","author":"Hadroug","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vib. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Castro-Cros, M., Velasco, M., and Angulo, C. (2021). Machine-Learning-Based Condition Assessment of Gas Turbines\u2014A Review. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14248468"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Naidenov, A.V. (2012, January 22). Features of diagnostics of gas turbine plants by vibroacoustic parameters. Proceedings of the Energy Saving and Innovative Technologies in the Fuel and Energy Complex, Tyumen, Russia. (In Russian)."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"16","article-title":"Diagnosis of faults in gas turbine installations using vibration diagnostics","volume":"5","author":"Dedyukhin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Humanit. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"56","article-title":"Diagnostics of the causes of operational destruction of gas turbine rotor blades","volume":"9","author":"Artamonov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Defectoscopy"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Grabill, P., Seale, J., Wroblewski, D., and Brotherton, T. (2002, January 5\u20139). iTEDS: The intelligent turbine engine diagnostic system. Proceedings of the 48th International Instrumentation Symposium, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"22","article-title":"Analysis of vibration parameters of ship gas turbine engines","volume":"13","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pol. Marit. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wito\u015b, M., and Szczepanik, R. (2009). Turbine engine health\/Maintenance status monitoring with use of phase-discrete method of blade vibration monitoring. Solid State Phenomena, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/SSP.147-149.530"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bielecki, M., Costagliola, S., and Gebalski, P. (2016, January 13\u201317). Support Vibration Diagnostics and Limits in Gas Turbines. Proceedings of the Turbo Expo: Power for Land, Sea, and Air, Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1115\/GT2016-56548"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.14311\/MAD.2017.04.04","article-title":"Aircraft gas turbine engine vibration diagnostics","volume":"5","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mag. Aviat. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostr.2021.12.050","article-title":"Highly sensitive methods for vibration diagnostics of fatigue damage in structural elements of aircraft gas turbine engines","volume":"35","author":"Bovsunovsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Procedia Struct. Integr."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"137","article-title":"Method for vibration monitoring of rotary machines","volume":"21","author":"Chichkov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Bull. Mosc. State Tech. Univ. Civ. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roriz, P., Silva, S., Fraz\u00e3o, O., and Novais, S. (2020). Optical Fiber Temperature Sensors and Their Biomedical Applications. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072113"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chernutsky, A.O., Dvoretskiy, D.A., Orekhov, I.O., Sazonkin, S.G., Ososkov, Y.Z., Denisov, L.K., Stepanov, L.V., Zhirnov, A.A., Pnev, A.B., and Karasik, V.E. (2020, January 2\u20136). High-spatial-resolution distributed temperature sensing system based on a mode-locked fiber laser. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference Laser Optics (ICLO), St. Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICLO48556.2020.9285857"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laarossi, I., Quintela-Incera, M.\u00c1., and L\u00f3pez-Higuera, J.M. (2019). Comparative Experimental Study of a High-Temperature Raman-Based Distributed Optical Fiber Sensor with Different Special Fibers. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030574"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2895","DOI":"10.28991\/cej-03091206","article-title":"Versions of fiber-optic sensors for monitoring the technical condition of aircraft structures","volume":"12","author":"Lvov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2020.106508","article-title":"Fiber Optic Shape Sensors: A comprehensive review","volume":"139","author":"Floris","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10298","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2931002","article-title":"Design and implementation of a compact rotational speed and air flow sensor for unmanned aerial vehicles","volume":"22","author":"Fries","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"2162","article-title":"Fiber-optic Fabry\u2013Perot sensor for simultaneous measurement of tilt angle and vibration acceleration","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3945","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.58.003945","article-title":"Real-time acceleration sensing with an arctan algorithm based on a modal interferometer","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2018.06.003","article-title":"Fiber\u2013optic micro vibration sensors fabricated by a femtosecond laser","volume":"110","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hicke, K., Eisermann, R., and Chruscicki, S. (2019). Enhanced Distributed Fiber Optic Vibration Sensing and Simultaneous Temperature Gradient Sensing Using Traditional C-OTDR and Structured Fiber with Scattering Dots. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194114"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11538","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.412935","article-title":"High resolution and large sensing range liquid level measurement using phase-sensitive optic distributed sensor","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3132098","article-title":"Polymer Optical Fiber Liquid Level Sensor: A Review","volume":"22","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gli\u0161i\u0107, B., and Inaudi, D. (2007). Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470517819"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72009","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.58.7.072009","article-title":"Multiparameter fiber-optic sensors: A review","volume":"58","author":"Pevec","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcemes, A., Fern\u00e1ndez-L\u00f3pez, A., D\u00edaz-Maroto, P.F., Lozano, A., and Sierra-Perez, J. (2018). Structural Health Monitoring in Composite Structures by Fiber-Optic Sensors. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041094"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tosi, D. (2018). Review of Chirped Fiber Bragg Grating (CFBG) Fiber-Optic Sensors and Their Applications. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072147"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5045180","article-title":"High-resolution fiber optic surface plasmon resonance sensor for biomedical applications","volume":"124","author":"Tomyshev","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"20","article-title":"Acousto-Optic Monochromator with a Controlled Width of The Instrumental Function","volume":"7","author":"Mazur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Bases Instrum."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N\u2019cho, J.S., and Fofana, I. (2020). Review of Fiber Optic Diagnostic Techniques for Power Transformers. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13071789"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2021.107082","article-title":"Optical fiber sensing for marine environment and marine structural health monitoring: A review","volume":"140","author":"Min","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gorshkov, B.G., Y\u00fcksel, K., Fotiadi, A.A., Wuilpart, M., Korobko, D.A., Zhirnov, A.A., Stepanov, K.V., Turov, A.T., Konstantinov, Y.A., and Lobach, I.A. (2022). Scientific Applications of Distributed Acoustic Sensing: State-of-the-Art Review and Perspective. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031033"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stepanov, K.V., Zhirnov, A.A., Chernutsky, A.O., Koshelev, K.I., Pnev, A.B., Lopunov, A.I., and Butov, O.V. (2020). The Sensitivity Improvement Characterization of Distributed Strain Sensors Due to Weak Fiber Bragg Gratings. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226431"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stepanov, K.V., Zhirnov, A.A., Koshelev, K.I., Chernutsky, A.O., Khan, R.I., and Pnev, A.B. (2021). Sensitivity Improvement of Phi-OTDR by Fiber Cable Coils. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217077"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhirnov, A.A., Stepanov, K.V., Sazonkin, S.G., Choban, T.V., Koshelev, K.I., Chernutsky, A.O., Pnev, A.B., Novikov, A.O., and Yagodnikov, D.A. (2021). Study of Intra-Chamber Processes in Solid Rocket Motors by Fiber Optic Sensors. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21237836"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2018.007131","article-title":"High sensitivity detection of partial discharge acoustic emission within power transformer by sagnac fiber optic sensor","volume":"25","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"072007","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.58.7.072007","article-title":"Review on fiber-optic sensing in health monitoring of power grids","volume":"58","author":"Chai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Munin, A.G. (1986). Aviation Acoustics, Mechanical Engineering. (In Russian)."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hui, R., and O\u2019Sullivan, M. (2009). Fiber Optic Measurement Techniques, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-373865-3.00004-5"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1063\/1.93626","article-title":"Passive stabilization scheme for fiber interferometers using (3 \u00d7 3) fiber directional couplers","volume":"41","author":"Koo","year":"1982","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/4781\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:39:28Z","timestamp":1760139568000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/4781"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,24]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22134781"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22134781","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,24]]}}}