{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T12:32:33Z","timestamp":1764333153042,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]],"date-time":"2022-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656892800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Innovation Research Group Project of the National Science Foundation of China, China","award":["51821003","201701D121065"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51821003","201701D121065"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation of Shanxi Province, China","award":["51821003","201701D121065"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51821003","201701D121065"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The ultrasonic Lamb wave detection principle can realize the noncontact measurement of liquid level in closed containers. When designing an ultrasonic Lamb wave sensor, it is vital to thoroughly study and select the optimal wedge size at the front of the sensor. In this paper, firstly, we select the best working mode of Lamb waves according to their propagation dispersion curve in aluminum alloy, and we obtain the best angle of wedge through experiments. Secondly, we study the impact of the size of the wedge block on the results, and we obtain the selection method of wedge block parameters. The evaluations show that, when the frequency\u2013thickness product is 3 MHz\u00b7mm, the Lamb waves work in the A1 mode, and the experimental effect is the best. At this time, the incident angle of the ultrasonic wave is 27.39\u00b0. The wedge thickness should be designed to avoid the near-field area of the ultrasonic field, and we should choose the length as odd multiples of 1\/4 wavelength. The rules obtained from the experiment can effectively select the best working mode for ultrasonic Lamb waves, while also providing a basis for the design of the wedge block size in a Lamb wave sensor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22135046","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]],"date-time":"2022-07-04T23:38:55Z","timestamp":1656977935000},"page":"5046","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Impact of Wedge Parameters on Ultrasonic Lamb Wave Liquid-Level Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Weizhao","family":"Xue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanjia","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wenyi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huixin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruiqing","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Guangzhou 510555, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2017.05.006","article-title":"Ultrasonic instrumentation system for Liquefied Petroleum Gas level monitoring","volume":"45","author":"Zakaria","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750302","DOI":"10.1142\/S021798491750302X","article-title":"A new interface weak-capacitance detection ASIC of capacitive liquid level sensor in the rocket","volume":"31","author":"Yin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mod. Phys. Lett. B"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-smt.2016.0513","article-title":"Design and development of a level transmitter using force resistive sensor as a primary sensing element","volume":"12","author":"Lata","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4211","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2544960","article-title":"Study of an Electro-Optic Technique of Level Transmitter Using Mach-Zehnder Interferometer and Float as Primary Sensing Elements","volume":"16","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6805107","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2017.2776245","article-title":"Quasi-Distributed Optical Fiber Sensor for Liquid-Level Measurement","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"34","article-title":"Noncontact ultrasonics used for impact damage detection on long-term water-immersed GFRP composites","volume":"4","author":"Berketis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Microstruct. Mater. Prop."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Zhang, M., and Li, S. (2010, January 22\u201324). A method of the untouched ultrasonic liquid level measurement with high precision. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Computer Application and System Modeling (ICCASM 2010), Taiyuan, China."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1155","article-title":"Impact of pressure and temperature upon ultrasonic velocity in two sorts of hydraulic oil","volume":"26","author":"Jun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tech. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Haohao, H., and Junqiao, X. (2010, January 22\u201324). A method of liquid level measurement based on ultrasonic echo characteristics. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Computer Application and System Modeling (ICCASM 2010), Taiyuan, China."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"42","article-title":"Examination of ultrasonic Lamb waves for detection of flaws in the bottom plate of oil tank","volume":"31","author":"Guangjian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ac66aa","article-title":"A transfer learning approach for damage diagnosis in composite laminated plate using Lamb waves","volume":"31","author":"Rai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2984","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2017.2775343","article-title":"Flexible Shear Mode Transducer for Structural Health Monitoring Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves","volume":"14","author":"Lowe","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012095","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/305\/1\/012095","article-title":"Interactive simulation and visualization of lamb wave propagation in isotropic and anisotropic structures","volume":"305","author":"Moll","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spratt, W.K., and Vetelino, J.F. (2009, January 20\u201324). Torsional acoustic waveguide sensor for temperature and liquid level. Proceedings of the Torsional Acoustic Waveguide Sensor for Temperature and Liquid Level, Besancon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/FREQ.2009.5168307"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"607","article-title":"Fluid level sensing using ultrasonic waveguides","volume":"56","author":"Balasubramaniam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Insight-Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csndt.2014.11.001","article-title":"Case study of guided wave propagation in a one-side water-immersed steel plate","volume":"3","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Case Stud. Nondestruct. Test. Eval."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3354","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2694454","article-title":"Direct-Write Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Transducers for Non-Destructive Testing of Metal Plates","volume":"17","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1007\/s11029-011-9173-2","article-title":"Dispersion of lamb waves in a three-layer plate made from compressible materials with finite initial deformations","volume":"46","author":"Zamanov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mech. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3383827","article-title":"Development of hybrid one-dimensional finite elementanalytical method for analysis of lamb wave propagation characteristics in composit panels","volume":"127","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0963-8695(00)00024-4","article-title":"The effect of dispersion on long-range inspection using ultrasonic guided waves","volume":"34","author":"Wilcox","year":"2001","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.2320\/matertrans.I-M2014814","article-title":"Absolute Hydrophone Calibration to 40 MHz Using Ultrasonic Far-Field","volume":"55","author":"Matsuda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Trans."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"026601","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.51.026601","article-title":"Frequency and Temperature Characteristics of an Ultrasonic Method for Measuring the Specific Gravity of Lead-Acid Battery Electrolyte","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolaevtsev, V.A., Suchkov, S.G., Selifonov, A.V., Suchkov, D.D., and Suchkova, S.M. (2016, January 3\u20136). Efficiency of lamb wave excitation by wedge-shaped ultrasonic transducer. Proceedings of the 2016 13th International Scientific-Technical Conference on Actual Problems of Electronics Instrument Engineering (APEIE), Novosibirsk, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/APEIE.2016.7802286"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.167-168.152","article-title":"Mode and Transducer Selection for Long Range Lamb Wave Inspection","volume":"167\u2013168","author":"Wilcox","year":"1999","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Lijian, Y., Haice, S.U., Songwei, G., and Yanhao, X. (2022, May 29). A Method for Increasing Efficiency of Electromagnetic Ultrasonic Lamb Wave Transducer at Tank Bottom Plate. Oil & Gas Storage and Transportation. Available online: http:\/\/en.cnki.com.cn\/Article_en\/CJFDTotal-YQCY201508008.htm."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1121\/1.428552","article-title":"Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media","volume":"107","author":"Rose","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-624X(81)90014-7","article-title":"Mode conversion of Rayleigh and Lamb waves to compression waves at a metal-liquid interface","volume":"19","author":"Deighton","year":"1981","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breakey, D.E.S., Jordan, P., Cavalieri, A.V.G., Olivier, L., and Rodr\u00edguez, D. (2013, January 27\u201329). Near-field wavepackets and the far-field sound of a subsonic jet. Proceedings of the 19th AIAA\/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2013-2083"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"33","article-title":"Ultrasonic near field in lossy media: Method of simulation","volume":"27","author":"Lukosevicius","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"44","article-title":"Sound field of an electromagnetic acoustic transducer","volume":"103","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2010.11.001","article-title":"Acoustic method for obtaining the pressure reflection coefficient using a half-wave layer","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, W., Liu, W., Hu, Y., and Wang, J. (2020). Study of Ultrasonic Near-Field Region in Ultrasonic Liquid-Level Monitoring System. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11080763"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2013.04.003","article-title":"Wave reflection and transmission by porous breakwaters: A new analytical solution","volume":"78","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00566414","article-title":"Lamb wave mode selection concepts for interfacial weakness analysis","volume":"11","author":"Pilarski","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/5046\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:42:45Z","timestamp":1760139765000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/5046"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22135046"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22135046","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,4]]}}}