{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T14:39:40Z","timestamp":1769006380007,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,5]],"date-time":"2022-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656979200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"DeTOP Project","award":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"]}]},{"name":"DeTOP Project","award":["DNR 2019-05601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DNR 2019-05601"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DNR 2019-05601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DNR 2019-05601"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Promobilia Foundation and Stiftelsen f\u00f6r bist\u00e5nd \u00e5t r\u00f6relsehindrade i Sk\u00e5ne","award":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EIT-ICT-24-2015, GA no. 687905"]}]},{"name":"Promobilia Foundation and Stiftelsen f\u00f6r bist\u00e5nd \u00e5t r\u00f6relsehindrade i Sk\u00e5ne","award":["DNR 2019-05601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DNR 2019-05601"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although seemingly effortless, the control of the human hand is backed by an elaborate neuro-muscular mechanism. The end result is typically a smooth action with the precise positioning of the joints of the hand and an exerted force that can be modulated to enable precise interaction with the surroundings. Unfortunately, even the most sophisticated technology cannot replace such a comprehensive role but can offer only basic hand functionalities. This issue arises from the drawbacks of the prosthetic hand control strategies that commonly rely on surface EMG signals that contain a high level of noise, thus limiting accurate and robust multi-joint movement estimation. The use of intramuscular EMG results in higher quality signals which, in turn, lead to an improvement in prosthetic control performance. Here, we present the evaluation of fourteen common\/well-known algorithms (mean absolute value, variance, slope sign change, zero crossing, Willison amplitude, waveform length, signal envelope, total signal energy, Teager energy in the time domain, Teager energy in the frequency domain, modified Teager energy, mean of signal frequencies, median of signal frequencies, and firing rate) for the direct and proportional control of a prosthetic hand. The method involves the estimation of the forces generated in the hand by using different algorithms applied to iEMG signals from our recently published database, and comparing them to the measured forces (ground truth). The results presented in this paper are intended to be used as a baseline performance metric for more advanced algorithms that will be made and tested using the same database.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22135054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]],"date-time":"2022-07-06T21:15:52Z","timestamp":1657142152000},"page":"5054","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evaluation of Simple Algorithms for Proportional Control of Prosthetic Hands Using Intramuscular Electromyography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8140-5453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nebojsa","family":"Malesevic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, 223 63 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anders","family":"Bj\u00f6rkman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hand Surgery, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, University of Gothenburg, 402 33 Gothenburg, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gert S.","family":"Andersson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Sk\u00e5ne University Hospital, 223 63 Lund, Sweden"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences in Lund\u2014Neurophysiology, Lund University, 223 63 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2108-0700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Cipriani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6783-0461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Antfolk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, 223 63 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"9","article-title":"Biomechanics of the Hand","volume":"60","author":"Pernet","year":"1975","journal-title":"Int. Surg."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Belter, J.T., and Dollar, A.M. (July, January 29). Performance Characteristics of Anthropomorphic Prosthetic Hands. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"147","article-title":"Overview: Mechanism and Control of a Prosthetic Arm","volume":"12","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2015","journal-title":"MCB Mol. Cell. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2010.08.0161","article-title":"Myoelectric Forearm Prostheses: State of the Art from a User-Centered Perspective","volume":"48","author":"Peerdeman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2012.2196711","article-title":"Control of Upper Limb Prostheses: Terminology and Proportional Myoelectric Controla Review","volume":"20","author":"Fougner","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-016-0172-3","article-title":"Proportional Estimation of Finger Movements from High-Density Surface Electromyography","volume":"13","author":"Celadon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-002-0309-2","article-title":"Influence of Anatomical, Physical, and Detection-System Parameters on Surface EMG","volume":"86","author":"Farina","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2014.2305520","article-title":"Linear and Nonlinear Regression Techniques for Simultaneous and Proportional Myoelectric Control","volume":"22","author":"Hahne","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2003.813539","article-title":"A Robust, Real-Time Control Scheme for Multifunction Myoelectric Control","volume":"50","author":"Englehart","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7244","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43676-8","article-title":"Extraction of Multi-Labelled Movement Information from the Raw HD-SEMG Image with Time-Domain Depth","volume":"9","author":"Olsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9728264","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9728264","article-title":"Vector Autoregressive Hierarchical Hidden Markov Models for Extracting Finger Movements Using Multichannel Surface EMG Signals","volume":"2018","author":"Kanitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-016-0308-1","article-title":"Improving the Recognition of Grips and Movements of the Hand Using Myoelectric Signals","volume":"16","author":"Shuman","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36571","DOI":"10.1038\/srep36571","article-title":"Gesture Recognition by Instantaneous Surface EMG Images","volume":"6","author":"Geng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2016.00009","article-title":"Deep Learning with Convolutional Neural Networks Applied to Electromyog-raphy Data: A Resource for the Classification of Movements for Prosthetic Hands","volume":"10","author":"Atzori","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurorobot."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, L.H., and Levi, J. (2013, January 3\u20137). Hargrove Comparison of Surface and Intramuscular EMG Pattern Recognition for Simultaneous Wrist\/Hand Motion Classification. Proceedings of the 2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2013.6610477"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2014.2301234","article-title":"Dexterous Control of a Prosthetic Hand Using Fine-Wire Intramuscular Electrodes in Targeted Extrinsic Muscles","volume":"22","author":"Cipriani","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00788.2007","article-title":"Multichannel Thin-Film Electrode for Intramuscular Electromyographic Recordings","volume":"104","author":"Farina","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"257re6","article-title":"An Osseointegrated Human-Machine Gateway for Long-Term Sensory Feedback and Motor Control of Artificial Limbs","volume":"6","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-925X-11-33","article-title":"On the Viability of Implantable Electrodes for the Natural Control of Artificial Limbs: Review and Discussion","volume":"11","author":"Delbeke","year":"2012","journal-title":"BioMed. Eng. Online"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2008.0235","article-title":"Analysis of Intramuscular Electromyogram Signals","volume":"367","author":"Merletti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2009.09.006","article-title":"Relationship between Grasping Force and Features of Single-Channel Intramuscular EMG Signals","volume":"185","author":"Kamavuako","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0b013e3181587f6c","article-title":"Upper-Limb Prosthetics: Critical Factors in Device Abandonment","volume":"86","author":"Biddiss","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salminger, S., Stino, H., Pichler, L.H., Gstoettner, C., Sturma, A., Mayer, J.A., Szivak, M., and Aszmann, O.C. (2020). Current Rates of Prosthetic Usage in Upper-Limb Amputees\u2013Have Innovations Had an Impact on Device Acceptance?. Disabil. Rehabil., in press.","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2020.1866684"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-019-0335-8","article-title":"A Database of Multi-Channel Intramuscular Electromyogram Signals during Isometric Hand Muscles Contractions","volume":"7","author":"Malesevic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Rudroff, T. (2008). Kinesiological Fine Wire EMG. A Practical Introduction to Fine Wire EMG Applications, Noraxon."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065701","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ab0eae","article-title":"Instrumented Platform for As-sessment of Isometric Hand Muscles Contractions","volume":"30","author":"Andersson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strzecha, K., Krak\u00f3s, M., Wi\u0119cek, B., Chudzik, P., Tatar, K., Lisowski, G., Mosorov, V., and Sankowski, D. (2021). Processing of EMG Signals with High Impact of Power Line and Cardiac Interferences. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11104625"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2658","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00086.2013","article-title":"Wrist Torque Estimation during Simultaneous and Continuously Changing Movements: Surface vs. Untargeted Intramuscular EMG","volume":"109","author":"Kamavuako","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-011-0438-7","article-title":"Estimation of Grasping Force from Features of Intramuscular EMG Signals with Mirrored Bilateral Training","volume":"40","author":"Kamavuako","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2010.2085429","article-title":"Control of Hand Prostheses Using Peripheral Information Review","volume":"3","author":"Micera","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevBiomedEng.v45.i1-6.150","article-title":"Control of Multifunctional Prosthetic Hands by Processing the Electromyographic Signal","volume":"45","author":"Zecca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"195","article-title":"Feature-Channel Subset Selection for Optimising Myoelectric Human-Machine Interface Design","volume":"2","author":"Oskoei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biomechatron. Biomed. Robot."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/10.204774","article-title":"A New Strategy for Multifunction Myoelectric Control","volume":"40","author":"Hudgins","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1109\/86.481972","article-title":"EMG Feature Evaluation for Movement Control of Upper Extremity Prostheses","volume":"3","author":"Wheeler","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1109\/86.736154","article-title":"EMG Pattern Recognition Based on Artificial Intelligence Techniques","volume":"6","author":"Park","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1109\/70.538982","article-title":"Myoelectric Teleoperation of a Complex Robotic Hand","volume":"12","author":"Farry","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Huang, H.P., and Chiang, C.Y. (2000, January 24\u201328). DSP-Based Controller for a Multi-Degree Prosthetic Hand. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2008.2005485","article-title":"Decoding of Individuated Finger Movements Using Surface Electromyography","volume":"56","author":"Tenore","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.870239","article-title":"A New Action Potential Detector Using the MTEO and Its Effects on Spike Sorting Systems at Low Signal-to-Noise Ratios","volume":"53","author":"Choi","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"135","article-title":"Application of the Teager\u2013Kaiser Energy Operator in an Autonomous Burst Detector to Create Onset and Offset Profiles of Forearm Muscles during Reach-to-Grasp Movements","volume":"18","author":"Krabben","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Bioeng. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"65","article-title":"Teager-Kaiser Operator Improves the Accuracy of EMG Onset Detection Independent of Signal-to-Noise Ratio","volume":"10","author":"Solnik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Bioeng. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Kaiser, J.F. (1990, January 3\u20136). On a Simple Algorithm to Calculate the \u201cEnergy\u201d of a Signal. Proceedings of the ICASSP, IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, Albuquerque, NM, USA."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"149","article-title":"A Novel Feature Extraction for Robust EMG Pattern Recognition","volume":"40","author":"Phinyomark","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-018-0363-1","article-title":"Online Mapping of EMG Signals into Kinematics by Autoencoding","volume":"15","author":"Vujaklija","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. NeuroEng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2013.2278411","article-title":"Intuitive, Online, Simultaneous, and Proportional Myoelectric Control over Two Degrees-of-Freedom in Upper Limb Amputees","volume":"22","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.116","article-title":"Targeted Muscle Reinnervation for Real-Time Myoelectric Control of Multifunction Artificial Arms","volume":"301","author":"Kuiken","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2007.891391","article-title":"The Optimal Controller Delay for Myoelectric Prostheses","volume":"15","author":"Farrell","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-925X-9-72","article-title":"Evaluation of EMG Processing Techniques Using Information Theory","volume":"9","author":"Politti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. OnLine"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2014.2305097","article-title":"Real-Time and Simultaneous Control of Artificial Limbs Based on Pattern Recognition Algorithms","volume":"22","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/5054\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:42:57Z","timestamp":1760139777000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/13\/5054"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,5]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22135054"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22135054","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,5]]}}}