{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T11:31:56Z","timestamp":1780054316293,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]],"date-time":"2022-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RGPIN-2019-03965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2019-03965"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RGPIN-2019-06348"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2019-06348"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smart electrical grids rely on data communication to support their operation and on sensing for diagnostics and maintenance. Usually, the roles of communication and sensing equipment are different, i.e., communication equipment does not participate in sensing tasks and vice versa. Power line communication (PLC) offers a cost-effective solution for joint communication and sensing for smart grids. This is because the high-frequency PLC signals used for data communication also reveal detailed information regarding the health of the power lines that they travel through. Traditional PLC-based power line or cable diagnostic solutions are dependent on prior knowledge of the cable type, network topology, and\/or characteristics of the anomalies. In this paper, we develop a power line sensing technique that can detect various types of cable anomalies without any prior domain knowledge. To this end, we design a solution that first uses time-series forecasting to predict the PLC channel state information at any given point in time based on its historical data. Under the approximation that the prediction error follows a Gaussian distribution, we then perform chi-squared statistical test to build an anomaly detector which identifies the occurrence of a cable fault. We demonstrate the effectiveness and universality of our sensing solution via evaluations conducted using both synthetic and real-world data extracted from low- and medium-voltage distribution networks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145320","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T01:53:22Z","timestamp":1658109202000},"page":"5320","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Power Line Communication and Sensing Using Time Series Forecasting"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Yinjia","family":"Huo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9901-5098","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gautham","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ofinno, Reston, VA 20190, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6583-1978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lutz","family":"Lampe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3529-2640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada"},{"name":"College of Computer Science and Software Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/MPE.2009.934876","article-title":"The path of the smart grid","volume":"8","author":"Farhangi","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Power Energy Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"US Department of Energy (2022, July 08). The Smart Grid, Available online: https:\/\/www.smartgrid.gov\/the_smart_grid\/smart_grid.html."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2011.2166794","article-title":"Smart grid technologies: Communication technologies and standards","volume":"7","author":"Gungor","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2011.101911.00087","article-title":"Smart grid\u2014The new and improved power grid: A survey","volume":"14","author":"Fang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tuts."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30845","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3059488","article-title":"Joint design of communication and sensing for beyond 5G and 6G systems","volume":"9","author":"Wild","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60206","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2914580","article-title":"Cable Diagnostics With Power Line Modems for Smart Grid Monitoring","volume":"7","author":"Huo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasad, G., Huo, Y., Lampe, L., Mengi, A., and Leung, V.C.M. (2019, January 3\u20135). Fault Diagnostics with Legacy Power Line Modems. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPLC.2019.8693385"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehmann, A.M., Raab, K., Gruber, F., Fischer, E., M\u00fcller, R., and Huber, J.B. (2016, January 6\u20139). A diagnostic method for power line networks by channel estimation of PLC devices. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2016.7778781"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Passerini, F., and Tonello, A.M. (2017, January 23\u201327). Full duplex power line communication modems for network sensing. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2017.8340692"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7630","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2732737","article-title":"Analysis of High-Frequency Impedance Measurement Techniques for Power Line Network Sensing","volume":"17","author":"Passerini","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.001.1900519","article-title":"Full-duplex power line communications: Design and applications from multimedia to smart grid","volume":"58","author":"Prasad","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2011.2109670","article-title":"For the Grid and Through the Grid: The Role of Power Line Communications in the Smart Grid","volume":"99","author":"Galli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Itron (2022, June 02). Itron OpenWay Riva Technology Overview. Available online: https:\/\/developer.itron.com\/riva-overview."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mengi, A., Ponzelar, S., and Koch, M. (2017, January 23\u201327). The ITU-T G.9960 broadband PLC communication concept for smartgrid applications. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2017.8340715"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-spr.2009.0137","article-title":"Application of joint time\u2013frequency domain reflectometry for electric power cable diagnostics","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"IET Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubickas, V. (2006). On-Line Time Domain Reflectometry Diagnostics of Medium Voltage XLPE Power Cables. [Ph.D. Thesis, KTH].","DOI":"10.1109\/CEIDP.2006.312059"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Gill, P. (2008). Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2987321","article-title":"Fault diagnosis for electrical systems and power networks: A review","volume":"21","author":"Furse","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6343","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRS.2018.2832126","article-title":"Locating the source of events in power distribution systems using micro-PMU data","volume":"33","author":"Farajollahi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huo, Y., Prasad, G., Lampe, L., and Leung, V.C.M. (2018, January 29\u201331). Cable Health Monitoring in Distribution Networks using Power Line Communications. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm), Aalborg, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2018.8587458"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2217317","article-title":"Design and application of surface wave sensors for nonintrusive power line fault detection","volume":"13","author":"Alam","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huo, Y., Prasad, G., Lampe, L., and Leung, C.V. (2019, January 3\u20135). Smart-grid monitoring: Enhanced machine learning for cable diagnostics. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPLC.2019.8693287"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasad, G., Huo, Y., Lampe, L., and Leung, V.C.M. (2019, January 21\u201323). Machine Learning Based Physical-Layer Intrusion Detection and Location for the Smart Grid. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm), Beijing, China,.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm.2019.8909779"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Bondorf, M., Koch, M., Hopfer, N., Zdrallek, M., Balada, C., Ahmed, S., Agne, S., Dengel, A., Karl, F., and Dietzler, U. (2021, January 18\u201319). Broadband Power Line Communication and Big-Data-Analytics for Supporting Grid Operation. Proceedings of the ETG Congress 2021, Online."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Bai, Y., Li, C., and Yang, Y.N. (2018, January 15\u201317). Application Research of ARIMA Model in Wind Turbine Gearbox Fault Trend Prediction. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Sensing, Diagnostics, Prognostics, and Control (SDPC), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SDPC.2018.8664793"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Sun, Y., Gao, W., and Gu, C. (2018, January 20\u201322). High Impact Low Frequency Peak Load Analysis using Extreme Value Theory. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/EI2.2018.8582202"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2019.112896","article-title":"Forecasting across time series databases using recurrent neural networks on groups of similar series: A clustering approach","volume":"140","author":"Bandara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2015.04.167","article-title":"Time series forecasting using hybrid ARIMA and ANN models based on DWT decomposition","volume":"48","author":"Khandelwal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2003.08.037","article-title":"Neural network forecasting for seasonal and trend time series","volume":"160","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"685","article-title":"Artificial neural networks in time series forecasting: A comparative analysis","volume":"38","author":"Allende","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kybernetika"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8116","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2881937","article-title":"Time\u2013Frequency-Based Condition Monitoring of 22.9-kV HTS Cable Systems: Cooling Process and Current Imbalance","volume":"66","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4163","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2019.2920606","article-title":"Classification of Faults in Multi-Core Cable via Time-Frequency Domain Reflectometry","volume":"67","author":"Bang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2017.2680459","article-title":"Offline fault localization technique on HVDC submarine cable via time\u2013frequency domain reflectometry","volume":"32","author":"Kwon","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Del."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Monitoring method for an unbalanced three-phase HTS cable system via time-frequency domain reflectometry","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.K., and Shin, Y.J. (2018, January 14\u201317). Multi-core cable fault diagnosis using cluster time-frequency domain reflectometry. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Houston, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2018.8409561"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"955","article-title":"Orthogonal chirp-division multiplexing for power line sensing via time-domain reflectometry","volume":"21","author":"Poor","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Nabeshima, K., Kurniant, K., Surbakti, T., Pinem, S., Subekti, M., Minakuchi, Y., and Kudo, K. (2005, January 15\u201317). On-line reactor monitoring with neural network for RSG-GAS. Proceedings of the ICSC Congress on Computational Intelligence Methods and Applications, Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Catterson, V.M., Rudd, S., McArthur, S.D., and Moss, G. (2009, January 8\u201312). On-line transformer condition monitoring through diagnostics and anomaly detection. Proceedings of the IEEE 15th International Conference on Intelligent System Applications to Power Systems, Curitiba, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISAP.2009.5352860"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Yan, Y., Zhang, Q., Sheng, G., Xie, D., and Gu, C. (2018, January 23\u201326). A Method for Anomaly Detection of State Information of Transformer Based on Association Rules and Elman Neural Network. Proceedings of the IEEE Condition Monitoring Diagnosis (CMD), Perth, WA, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CMD.2018.8535763"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashwini, P., and Umamaherwari, R. (2017, January 16\u201318). Wireless sensor network for condition monitoring of remote wind mill. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Innovations in Green Energy and Healthcare Technologies (IGEHT), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGEHT.2017.8094102"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1982","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2368559","article-title":"Fault tolerance oriented sensors relay monitoring mechanism for overhead transmission line in smart grid","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRS.1987.4335210","article-title":"The time series approach to short term load forecasting","volume":"2","author":"Hagan","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Box, G.E., Jenkins, G.M., and Reinsel, G.C. (2011). Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"89","article-title":"Long short term memory networks for anomaly detection in time series","volume":"Volume 89","author":"Malhotra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schapire, R.E., and Freund, Y. (2012). Boosting: Foundations and Algorithms, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/8291.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"892628","article-title":"An overview of the HomePlug AV2 technology","volume":"2013","author":"Yonge","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2016.2587284","article-title":"In-band full duplex broadband power line communications","volume":"64","author":"Prasad","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"4419","article-title":"Digitally Controlled Analog Cancellation for Full Duplex Broadband Power Line Communications","volume":"65","author":"Prasad","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lampe, L., Tonello, A.M., and Swart, T.G. (2016). Power Line Communications: Principles, Standards and Applications from Multimedia to Smart Grid, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118676684"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"O\u2019Shea, T.J., Clancy, T.C., and McGwier, R.W. (2016). Recurrent neural radio anomaly detection. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Bangalore, P., and Tjernberg, L.B. (2018, January 11\u201315). An Anomaly Detection Approach Using Wavelet Transform and Artificial Neural Networks for Condition Monitoring of Wind Turbines\u2019 Gearboxes. Proceedings of the IEEE Power Systems Computation Conference (PSCC), Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.23919\/PSCC.2018.8442916"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02868568","article-title":"Tolerance regions for a multivariate normal population","volume":"16","author":"Slotani","year":"1964","journal-title":"Ann. Inst. Stat. Math."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plackett, R.L. (1983). Karl Pearson and the chi-squared test. International Statistical Review\/Revue Internationale de Statistique, International Statistical Institute (ISI).","DOI":"10.2307\/1402731"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Hopfer, N. (2020). Nutzen der Breitband-Powerline-Kommunikation zur Erfassung kritischer Kabelzust\u00e4nde in Mittel-und Niederspannungsnetzen. [Ph.D. Thesis, School of Electrical, Information and Media Engineering, University of Wuppertal]."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"771","article-title":"A short introduction to boosting","volume":"14","author":"Freund","year":"1999","journal-title":"Jpn. Soc. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Gruber, F., and Lampe, L. (April, January 29). On PLC channel emulation via transmission line theory. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and Its Applications (ISPLC), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00f6rstel, L., and Lampe, L. (2017, January 3\u20135). Grid diagnostics: Monitoring cable aging using power line transmission. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and its Applications (ISPLC), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPLC.2017.7897106"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27302","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2901861","article-title":"Smart grid monitoring using power line modems: Effect of anomalies on signal propagation","volume":"7","author":"Passerini","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijepes.2012.09.005","article-title":"Unsymmetrical fault diagnosis in transmission\/distribution networks","volume":"45","author":"Saha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Intl. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/57.901613","article-title":"Ageing mechanisms and diagnostics for power cables - an overview","volume":"17","author":"Densley","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Elect. Insul. Mag."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2003.811305","article-title":"Frequency-domain reflectometry for on-board testing of aging aircraft wiring","volume":"45","author":"Furse","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5320\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:51:53Z","timestamp":1760140313000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5320"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22145320"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22145320","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]}}}