{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T03:15:58Z","timestamp":1770520558891,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]],"date-time":"2022-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52178371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52178371"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LR21E080005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LR21E080005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["202203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202203"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Outstanding Youth Project of Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province","award":["52178371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52178371"]}]},{"name":"Outstanding Youth Project of Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province","award":["LR21E080005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LR21E080005"]}]},{"name":"Outstanding Youth Project of Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province","award":["202203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202203"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Founds for National University, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan)","award":["52178371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52178371"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Founds for National University, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan)","award":["LR21E080005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LR21E080005"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Founds for National University, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan)","award":["202203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202203"]}]},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Rock-Soil Drilling &amp; Excavation and Protection, Ministry of Education","award":["52178371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52178371"]}]},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Rock-Soil Drilling &amp; Excavation and Protection, Ministry of Education","award":["LR21E080005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LR21E080005"]}]},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Rock-Soil Drilling &amp; Excavation and Protection, Ministry of Education","award":["202203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202203"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Low-strain tests are widely utilized as a nondestructive approach to assess the integrity of newly piled foundations. So far, the examination of existing pile foundations is becoming an indispensable protocol for pile recycling or post-disaster safety assessment. However, the present low-strain test is not capable of testing existing pile foundations. In this paper, the torsional low-strain test (TLST) is proposed to overcome this drawback. Both the upward and downward waves are considered in the TLST wave propagation model established in this paper so that a firm theoretical basis is grounded for the test signal interpretations. A concise semi-analytical solution is derived and its rationality is verified by comparisons with the existing solutions for newly piled foundations and the finite element results. The main conclusions of this study can be drawn as follows: (1). by placing the sensors where the incident wave is applied, the number of reflected signals can be minimized; (2). the defects can be more evidently identified if the incident wave\/sensors are input\/installed close to the superstructure\/pile head.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145330","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T01:53:22Z","timestamp":1658109202000},"page":"5330","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Torsional Low-Strain Test for Nondestructive Integrity Examination of Existing High-Pile Foundation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4575-7376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunpeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"},{"name":"Geotechnical Research Centre, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9366-0267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. Hesham","family":"El Naggar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geotechnical Research Centre, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada"}]},{"given":"Wenbing","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Zongqin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.01.046","article-title":"Distributed strain measurements in a CFA pile using high spatial resolution fibre optic sensors","volume":"160","author":"Bersan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Yu, Z., Xu, Y., Ding, L., Ding, H., Yu, Q., and Su, Z. (2022). GNSS Aided Long-Range 3D Displacement Sensing for High-Rise Structures with Two Non-Overlapping Cameras. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020379"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2022.104853","article-title":"Modified Rayleigh-Love rod model for 3D dynamic analysis of large-diameter thin-walled pipe pile embedded in multilayered soils","volume":"149","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2022.107317","article-title":"Dynamic multi-point method for evaluating the pile compressive capacity","volume":"159","author":"Tu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soil. Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1007\/s40098-021-00583-y","article-title":"Identifying small defects in cast-in-place piles using low strain integrity testing","volume":"52","author":"Loseva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:11(1057)","article-title":"Low strain integrity testing of piles: Three-dimensional effects","volume":"129","author":"Chow","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, D.-M., Yan, W., Wang, X.-Q., and Lu, L.-M. (2017). Towards Intelligent Interpretation of Low Strain Pile Integrity Testing Results Using Machine Learning Techniques. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112443"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Li, X., Wen, M., Hu, L., Duan, W., and Li, J. (2022). Dynamic Responses of a Pile with a Cap under the Freezing and Thawing Processes of a Saturated Porous Media Considering Slippage between Pile and Soil. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12094214"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2020.103840","article-title":"A new approach for longitudinal vibration of a large-diameter floating pipe pile in viscoelastic soil considering the three dimensional wave effects","volume":"128","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2020.103942","article-title":"Analytical solution for longitudinal vibration of a floating pile in saturated porous media based on a fictitious saturated soil pile model","volume":"131","author":"Cui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.2749\/101686610791555595","article-title":"Assessment Criteria for Existing Structures","volume":"20","author":"Vrouwenvelder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"43","article-title":"Research on non-destructive testing technology for existing bridge pile foundations","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Monit. Maint."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04021128","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002679","article-title":"Multipoint traveling wave decomposition method and its application in extended pile shaft integrity test","volume":"147","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kou, H.-L., Diao, W.-Z., Liu, T., Yang, D.-L., and Horpibulsuk, S. (2018). Field performance of open-ended prestressed high-strength concrete pipe piles jacked into clay. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124216"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1139\/t74-059","article-title":"Dynamic stiffness and damping of piles","volume":"11","author":"Novak","year":"1974","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.1999.49.1.91","article-title":"Dynamic response of a pile in a multi-layered soil to transient torsional and axial loading","volume":"49","author":"Militano","year":"1999","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9399(1992)118:1(140)","article-title":"Time-domain analysis of dynamically loaded single piles","volume":"118","author":"Mamoon","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.12989\/sem.2000.10.4.299","article-title":"Vertical and torsional soil reactions for radially inhomogeneous soil layer","volume":"10","year":"2000","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.11.P.052","article-title":"Dynamic Winkler modulus for axially loaded piles","volume":"62","author":"Anoyatis","year":"2012","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1680\/jgeot.16.T.040","article-title":"Three-dimensional propagation of waves in piles during low-strain integrity tests","volume":"68","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2021.108828","article-title":"A 3D analytical model for distributed low strain test and parallel seismic test of pipe piles","volume":"225","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nghiem, H.M. (2022). Variational approach for torsional dynamic response of a single pile in multi-layered soils. Geomech. Geoengin.","DOI":"10.1080\/17486025.2022.2029954"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"283","article-title":"Theoretical study on torsional wave applied in low strain dynamic testing of piles","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.P., Wang, Z.Q., El Naggar, M.H., Wu, W.B., Wang, L.X., and Jiang, G.S. (2022). Three-dimensional wave propagation in a solid pile during torsional low strain integrity test. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods. Geomech.","DOI":"10.1002\/nag.3389"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:9(1002)","article-title":"Vertical and torsional vibration of foundations in inhomogeneous media","volume":"114","author":"Veletsos","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/0045-7949(93)90504-7","article-title":"Sensitivity analysis of piles undergoing torsion","volume":"48","author":"Budkowska","year":"1993","journal-title":"Comput. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1002\/nag.2279","article-title":"Torsional dynamic response of a large-diameter pipe pile in viscoelastic saturated soil","volume":"38","author":"Zheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compgeo.2016.06.013","article-title":"Torsional dynamic response of a pile embedded in layered soil based on the fictitious soil pile model","volume":"80","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2019.106010","article-title":"Torsional complex impedance of pipe pile considering pile installation and soil plug effect","volume":"131","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soil. Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:7(942)","article-title":"Torsional response of piles in non-homogeneous soil","volume":"111","author":"Chow","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1680\/jgere.19.00037","article-title":"Three-dimensional analysis of pile groups subject to torsion","volume":"7","author":"Zidan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geotech. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2022.111708","article-title":"Response of offshore wind turbine tripod suction bucket foundation to seismic and environmental loading","volume":"257","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1660","DOI":"10.1002\/nag.3362","article-title":"Propagation characteristics of flexural wave and the reflection from vertical cracks during pipe-pile integrity testing","volume":"46","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000964","article-title":"Numerical solution of single piles subjected to pure torsion","volume":"140","author":"Basack","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"06014006","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000325","article-title":"Numerical solution of single pile subjected to simultaneous torsional and axial loads","volume":"14","author":"Basack","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/nag.3290","article-title":"Analytical solution for distributed torsional low strain integrity test for pipe pile","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1007\/s11440-020-01033-4","article-title":"Vertical dynamic response of a pile embedded in a poroelastic soil layer overlying rigid base","volume":"16","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Geotech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3339","DOI":"10.1007\/s11440-021-01274-x","article-title":"A continuum-based model on axial pile-head dynamic impedance in inhomogeneous soil","volume":"16","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Geotech."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5330\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:52:13Z","timestamp":1760140333000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5330"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22145330"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22145330","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,16]]}}}