{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T23:22:40Z","timestamp":1783552960774,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]],"date-time":"2022-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658188800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006141","name":"Military University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UGB\/22-742\/2022\/WAT"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UGB\/22-742\/2022\/WAT"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006141","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a method of high-capacity and transparent watermarking based on the usage of deep neural networks with the adjustable subsquares properties algorithm to encode the data of a watermark in high-quality video using the H.265\/HEVC (High-Efficiency Video Coding) codec. The aim of the article is to present a method of embedding a watermark in a video with HEVC codec compression by making changes in a video in a way that is not noticeable to the naked eye. The method presented here is characterised by focusing on ensuring the accuracy of the original image in relation to the watermarked image, providing the transparency of the embedded watermark, while ensuring its survival after compression by the HEVC codec. The article includes a presentation of the practical results of watermark embedding with a built-in variation mechanism of its capacity and resistance, thanks to the adjustable subsquares properties algorithm. The obtained PSNR (peak signal-to-noise ratio) results are at the level of 40 dB or better. There is the possibility of the complete recovery of a watermark from a single frame compressed in the CRF (constant rate factor) range of up to 16, resulting in a BER (bit error rate) equal to 0 for the received watermark.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145376","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]],"date-time":"2022-07-19T08:28:25Z","timestamp":1658219305000},"page":"5376","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["High-Quality Video Watermarking Based on Deep Neural Networks and Adjustable Subsquares Properties Algorithm"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4848-4716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Kaczy\u0144ski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3556-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zbigniew","family":"Piotrowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Wang, Z., Yu, J., and Qian, Z. (2015, January 12\u201315). Reversible visible watermark embedded in encrypted domain. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE China Summit and International Conference on Signal and Information Processing (ChinaSIP), Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ChinaSIP.2015.7230520"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., and Jeon, B. (2006, January 8\u201311). Reversible Visible Watermarking Technique for Images. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Image Processing, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2006.312986"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, N.V., Sreelatha, K., and Kumar, C.S. (2016, January 12\u201314). Invisible watermarking in printed images. Proceedings of the 2016 1st India International Conference on Information Processing (IICIP), Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IICIP.2016.7975333"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chacko, S.E., Mary, I.T.B., and Raj, W.N.D. (2011, January 8\u201310). Embedding invisible watermark in digital image using interpolation and histogram shifting. Proceedings of the 2011 3rd International Conference on Electronics Computer Technology, Kanyakumari, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECTECH.2011.5941863"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, L., Yan, Q., Liu, M., and Pan, Y. (2014, January 14\u201316). Maximum likelihood watermark detection in absolute domain using Weibull model. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Region 10 Symposium, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCONSpring.2014.6863024"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., and Jiang, L. (2007, January 22\u201324). Blind Detection of LSB Watermarking at Low Embedding Rate in Grayscale Images. Proceedings of the 2007 Second International Conference on Communications and Networking in China, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CHINACOM.2007.4469415"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, C., Lu, Y., and Zhou, Y. (2017, January 11\u201313). An automatic visible watermark removal technique using image inpainting algorithms. Proceedings of the 2017 4th International Conference on Systems and Informatics (ICSAI), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSAI.2017.8248459"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Zhu, Z., and Bai, X. (2021, January 3\u20138). WDNet: Watermark-Decomposition Network for Visible Watermark Removal. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV), Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WACV48630.2021.00373"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, Z., and Liu, H. (2012, January 17\u201319). Research on Digital Watermark Technology Based on LSB Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2012 Fourth International Conference on Computational and Information Sciences, Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCIS.2012.242"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giri, K.J., Peer, M.A., and Nagabhushan, P. (2014, January 5\u20137). A channel wise color image watermarking scheme based on Discrete Wavelet Transformation. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom), New Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IndiaCom.2014.6828064"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El\u2019arbi, M., Amar, C.B., and Nicolas, H. (2006, January 9\u201312). Video Watermarking Based on Neural Networks. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICME.2006.262846"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishra, A., Agarwal, C., and Chetty, G. (2018, January 8\u201313). Lifting Wavelet Transform based Fast Watermarking of Video Summaries using Extreme Learning Machine. Proceedings of the 2018 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/IJCNN.2018.8489305"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagdarikar, A.M.U., and Senapati, R.K. (2015, January 2\u20133). Robust and novel blind watermarking scheme for H.264 compressed video. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication Engineering Systems, Guntur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPACES.2015.7058264"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meerwald, P., and Uhl, A. (2010, January 15\u201317). Robust Watermarking of H.264-Encoded Video: Extension to SVC. Proceedings of the 2010 Sixth International Conference on Intelligent Information Hiding and Multimedia Signal Processing, Darmstadt, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IIHMSP.2010.28"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132991","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2940366","article-title":"An Intra-Drift-Free Robust Watermarking Algorithm in High Efficiency Video Coding Compressed Domain","volume":"7","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaj, S., Sur, A., and Bora, P.K. (2015, January 16\u201319). A robust watermarking scheme against re-compression attack for H.265\/HEVC. Proceedings of the 2015 Fifth National Conference on Computer Vision, Pattern Recognition, Image Processing and Graphics (NCVPRIPG), Patna, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/NCVPRIPG.2015.7490065"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1684(98)00017-6","article-title":"Robust image watermarking in the spatial domain","volume":"66","author":"Nikolaidis","year":"1998","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"and Saxena, A. (2017, January 6\u20137). Digital image watermarking using least significant bit and discrete cosine transformation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT), Kannur, India."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M., Chang, H., and Wang, M. (2009, January 14\u201316). Watermarking Mechanism for Copyright Protection by Using the Pinned Field of the Pinned Sine Transform. Proceedings of the 2009 10th International Symposium on Pervasive Systems, Algorithms, and Networks, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/I-SPAN.2009.53"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lang, J., Sun, J.-Y., and Yang, W.-F. (2012, January 11\u201313). A Digital Watermarking Algorithm Based on Discrete Fractional Fourier Transformation. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Computer Science and Service System, Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSSS.2012.178"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Afandy, K.A., Faragallah, O.S., El-Rabaie, E.M., El-Samie, F.E.A., and Elmhalawy, A. (2016, January 24\u201326). A hybrid scheme for robust color image watermarking using DSWT in DCT domain. Proceedings of the 2016 4th IEEE International Colloquium on Information Science and Technology (CiSt), Tangier, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIST.2016.7805088"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulkarni, T.S., and Dewan, J.H. (2016, January 12\u201313). Digital video watermarking using Hybrid wavelet transform with Cosine, Haar, Kekre, Walsh, Slant and Sine transforms. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computing Communication Control and automation (ICCUBEA), Pune, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCUBEA.2016.7860055"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasan, N., Islam, M.S., Chen, W., Kabir, M.A., and Al-Ahmadi, S. (2021). Encryption Based Image Watermarking Algorithm in 2DWT-DCT Domains. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165540"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Bai, R., Zhang, S., Chang, C.-C., and Shi, M. (2021). Screen-Shooting Resilient Watermarking Scheme via Learned Invariant Keypoints and QT. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196554"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel-Aziz, M.M., Hosny, K.M., Lashin, N.A., and Fouda, M.M. (2021). Blind Watermarking of Color Medical Images Using Hadamard Transform and Fractional-Order Moments. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21237845"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"2982","article-title":"An effective robust and imperceptible blind color image watermarking using WHT","volume":"34","author":"Prabha","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2017.10.016","article-title":"Selective bit embedding scheme for robust blind color image watermarking","volume":"426","author":"Hua","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10119","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-016-3601-1","article-title":"Blind image counterwatermarking\u2014Hidden data filter","volume":"76","author":"Piotrowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-020-01945-y","article-title":"A blind image watermarking scheme combining spatial domain and frequency domain","volume":"37","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., and Ji, H. (2022). A Watermarking Optimization Method Based on Matrix Decomposition and DWT for Multi-Size Images. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11132027"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, Y.-F., and Tai, W.-L. (2022). Separable Reversible Watermarking in Encrypted Images for Privacy Preservation. Symmetry, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14071336"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faheem, Z.B., Ali, M., Raza, M.A., Arslan, F., Ali, J., Masud, M., and Shorfuzzaman, M. (2022). Image Watermarking Scheme Using LSB and Image Gradient. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12094202"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, T., Xu, J., Yang, Y., and Han, B. (2022). Robust Zero-Watermarking Algorithm for Medical Images Using Double-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform and Hessenberg Decomposition. Mathematics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/math10071154"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bogacki, P., and Dziech, A. (2022). Analysis of New Orthogonal Transforms for Digital Watermarking. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072628"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.-E., Seo, Y.-H., and Kim, D.-W. (2020). Convolutional Neural Network-Based Digital Image Watermarking Adaptive to the Resolution of Image and Watermark. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10196854"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Kaplan, R., Johnson, J., and Fei-Fei, L. (2018, January 9\u201313). HiDDeN: Hiding data with deep networks. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01267-0_40"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Zhong, X., and Shih, F.Y. (2019). A robust image watermarking system based on deep neural networks. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Wen, B., and Aydore, S. (2019). ROMark, a robust watermarking system using adversarial training. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2020.165911","article-title":"Research on scalable video watermarking algorithm based on H.264 compressed domain","volume":"227","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Int. J. Light Electron Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"8848553","article-title":"A Semi-Fragile Video Watermarking Algorithm Based on H.264\/AVC","volume":"2020","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, D., Zhang, X., Kang, W., Zhao, H., and Lv, Y. (2022). Video Watermarking Algorithm Based on NSCT, Pseudo 3D-DCT and NMF. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134752"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1007\/s00530-021-00765-x","article-title":"An effective and secure video watermarking using hybrid technique","volume":"27","author":"Dhevanandhini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Multimed. Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53984","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2869148","article-title":"A Robust and Improved Visual Quality Data Hiding Method for HEVC","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Baluja, S. (2017, January 4\u20139). Hiding images in plain sight: Deep steganography. Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2017), Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z. (2018, January 4\u20136). Improved adam optimizer for deep neural networks. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/ACM 26th International Symposium on Quality of Service (IWQoS), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWQoS.2018.8624183"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2022, July 15). LG: Spain and Patagonia. Available online: https:\/\/4kmedia.org\/lg-spain-and-patagonia-uhd-4k-demo\/."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Syahbana, Y.A., Rahman, A.A., and Bakar, K.A. (2011, January 11\u201314). Aligned-PSNR (APSNR) for Objective Video Quality Measurement (VQM) in video stream over wireless and mobile network. Proceedings of the 2011 World Congress on Information and Communication Technologies, Mumbai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/WICT.2011.6141267"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5376\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:53:46Z","timestamp":1760140426000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5376"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22145376"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22145376","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]}}}