{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T20:48:07Z","timestamp":1779310087350,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]],"date-time":"2022-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658188800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian MISE under the PON \u201cImprese e Competitivit\u00e0\u201d program","award":["F\/190084\/03\/X44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F\/190084\/03\/X44"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As one of the most promising technologies for next-generation mobile platforms, Augmented Reality (AR) has the potential to radically change the way users interact with real environments enriched with various digital information. To achieve this potential, it is of fundamental importance to track and maintain accurate registration between real and computer-generated objects. Thus, it is crucially important to assess tracking capabilities. In this paper, we present a benchmark evaluation of the tracking performances of some of the most popular AR handheld devices, which can be regarded as a representative set of devices for sale in the global market. In particular, eight different next-gen devices including smartphones and tablets were considered. Experiments were conducted in a laboratory by adopting an external tracking system. The experimental methodology consisted of three main stages: calibration, data acquisition, and data evaluation. The results of the experimentation showed that the selected devices, in combination with the AR SDKs, have different tracking performances depending on the covered trajectory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22145382","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]],"date-time":"2022-07-19T08:28:25Z","timestamp":1658219305000},"page":"5382","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Benchmarking Built-In Tracking Systems for Indoor AR Applications on Popular Mobile Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0887-1201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Marino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG), University of Calabria, P. Bucci, 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9755-475X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Bruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG), University of Calabria, P. Bucci, 87036 Rende, Italy"},{"name":"3D Research s.r.l., 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7771-6582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Loris","family":"Barbieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG), University of Calabria, P. Bucci, 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Lagudi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering (DIMEG), University of Calabria, P. Bucci, 87036 Rende, Italy"},{"name":"3D Research s.r.l., 87036 Rende, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-020-00492-0","article-title":"Virtual, mixed, and augmented reality: A systematic review for immersive systems research","volume":"25","author":"Liberatore","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2947","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2018.2868591","article-title":"Revisiting trends in augmented reality research: A review of the 2nd decade of ISMAR (2008\u20132017)","volume":"24","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirohi, P., Agarwal, A., and Maheshwari, P. (2020, January 25\u201326). A survey on Augmented Virtual Reality: Applications and Future Directions. Proceedings of the 2020 Seventh International Conference on Information Technology Trends (ITT), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITT51279.2020.9320869"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Minaee, S., Liang, X., and Yan, S. (2022). Modern Augmented Reality: Applications, Trends, and Future Directions. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s42492-020-00057-7","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of augmented reality in medicine, retail, and games","volume":"3","author":"Parekh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vis. Comput. Ind. Biomed. Art"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6917","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2698164","article-title":"Mobile augmented reality survey: From where we are to where we go","volume":"5","author":"Chatzopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2019.07.002","article-title":"Adopting augmented reality in the age of industrial digitalization","volume":"115","author":"Masood","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3145534","article-title":"A survey of augmented, virtual, and mixed reality for cultural heritage","volume":"11","author":"Bekele","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comput. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, G.D.M., Petry, M.R., and Moreira, A.P. (2022). Augmented Reality for Human\u2013Robot Collaboration and Cooperation in Industrial Applications: A Systematic Literature Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072725"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-019-00379-9","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of augmented reality in educational settings","volume":"23","author":"Baldiris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"17","article-title":"Augmented reality in industry 4.0","volume":"6","author":"Manuri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Comput. Sci. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13358","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2808326","article-title":"A review on industrial augmented reality systems for the industry 4.0 shipyard","volume":"6","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Relji\u0107, V., Milenkovi\u0107, I., Dudi\u0107, S., \u0160ulc, J., and Baj\u010di, B. (2021). Augmented reality applications in industry 4.0 environment. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11125592"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2014.2380176","article-title":"Ercan. Fusing Inertial Sensor Data in an Extended Kalman Filter for 3D Camera Tracking","volume":"24","author":"Erdem","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2017.06.002","article-title":"A systematic review of augmented reality applications in maintenance","volume":"49","author":"Palmarini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Robot. Comput. -Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"100175","article-title":"Augmented reality smart glasses in industrial assembly: Current status and future challenges","volume":"20","author":"Danielsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ind. Inf. Integr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cag.2016.02.002","article-title":"Tracking for mobile devices: A systematic mapping study","volume":"56","author":"Roberto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2019.106159","article-title":"A survey of industrial augmented reality","volume":"139","author":"Mariano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2997","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102997","article-title":"A survey of marker-less tracking and registration techniques for health & environmental applications to augmented reality and ubiquitous geospatial information Systems","volume":"20","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, S., Chaudhary, R., Kaur, A., and Mantri, A. (2019, January 15\u201317). A survey on tracking techniques in augmented reality-based application. Proceedings of the 2019 Fifth International Conference on Image Information Processing (ICIIP), Shimla, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIIP47207.2019.8985779"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debeunne, C., and Vivet, D. (2020). A review of visual-LiDAR fusion based simultaneous localization and mapping. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072068"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nowacki, P., and Woda, M. (2019, January 1\u20135). Capabilities of arcore and arkit platforms for ar\/vr applications. Proceedings of the International Conference on Dependability and Complex Systems, Brun\u00f3w, Poland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-19501-4_36"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Cao, J., Lam, K.Y., Lee, L.H., Liu, X., Hui, P., and Su, X. (2021). Mobile Augmented Reality: User Interfaces, Frameworks, and Intelligence. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diao, P.H., and Shih, N.J. (2018). MARINS: A mobile smartphone AR system for pathfinding in a dark environment. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103442"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shih, N.J., Diao, P.H., and Chen, Y. (2019). ARTS, an AR tourism system, for the integration of 3D scanning and smartphone AR in cultural heritage tourism and pedagogy. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173725"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., and Qi, Y. (2022). A Multi-User Collaborative AR System for Industrial Applications. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22041319"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Tian, Y., Zhang, F., Quan, S., and Xu, Y. (2020, January 9\u201313). Object detection in the context of mobile augmented reality. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), Porto de Galinhas, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMAR50242.2020.00037"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1145\/3386569.3392404","article-title":"ARAnimator: In-situ character animation in mobile AR with user-defined motion gestures","volume":"39","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monica, R., and Aleotti, J. (2022). Evaluation of the Oculus Rift S tracking system in room scale virtual reality. Virtual Real., 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-022-00637-3"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soares, I., BSousa, R., Petry, M., and Moreira, A.P. (2021). Accuracy and Repeatability Tests on HoloLens 2 and HTC Vive. Multimodal Technol. Interact., 5.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202108.0190.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1007\/s11548-019-01992-4","article-title":"Accuracy assessment for the co-registration between optical and VIVE head-mounted display tracking","volume":"14","author":"Groves","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Assist. Radiol. Surg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Slembrouck, M., Deboeverie, F., Bernardos, A.M., Besada, J.A., Veelaert, P., and Casar, J.R. (2015, January 8\u201311). A hybrid pose tracking approach for handheld augmented reality. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Distributed Smart Cameras, Seville, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/2789116.2789128"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2021.103412","article-title":"An Augmented Reality inspection tool to support workers in Industry 4.0 environments","volume":"127","author":"Marino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-04254-4","article-title":"An augmented reality tool to detect and annotate design variations in an Industry 4.0 approach","volume":"105","author":"Bruno","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruno, F., Barbieri, L., Marino, E., Muzzupappa, M., and Colacino, B. (2019). A Handheld Mobile Augmented Reality Tool for On-Site Piping Assembly Inspection. International Conference of the Italian Association of Design Methods and Tools for Industrial Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-31154-4_12"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feigl, T., Porada, A., Steiner, S., L\u00f6ffler, C., Mutschler, C., and Philippsen, M. (2020, January 27\u201329). Localization Limitations of Arcore, Arkit, and Hololens in Dynamic Large-scale Industry Environments. Proceedings of the 15th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications (GRAPP), Valletta, Malta.","DOI":"10.5220\/0008989903070318"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W17-135-2019","article-title":"Implementation and first evaluation of an indoor mapping application using smartphones and AR frameworks","volume":"XLII-2\/W17","author":"Hasler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00fcbner, P., Clintworth, K., Liu, Q., Weinmann, M., and Wursthorn, S. (2020). Evaluation of hololens tracking and depth sensing for indoor mapping applications. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041021"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cort\u00e9s, S., Solin, A., Rahtu, R., and Kannala, J. (2018, January 8\u201314). Advio: An authentic dataset for visual-inertial odometry. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01249-6_26"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.05.006","article-title":"Accuracy map of an optical motion capture system with 42 or 21 cameras in a large measurement volume","volume":"58","author":"Aurand","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., Zhu, M.M., Guo, L., and He, C.X. (2021, January 28). Research on stability and accuracy of the OptiTrack system based on mean error. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics 2021, Fukuoka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2605796"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Application of OptiTrack motion capture systems in human movement analysis: A systematic literature review","volume":"5","author":"Kiss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Recent Innov. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nezami, F.N., W\u00e4chter, M.A., Maleki, N., Spaniol, P., K\u00fchne, L.M., Haas, A., Pingel, J., Tiemann, L., Nienhaus, F., and Keller, L. (2021). Westdrive X LoopAR: An Open-Access Virtual Reality Project in Unity for Evaluating User Interaction Methods during Takeover Requests. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051879"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz-Fernandez, L.E., Cabrera-Avila, E.V., da Silva, B.M., and Gon\u00e7alves, L.M. (2021). Smart artificial markers for accurate visual mapping and localization. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020625"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chai, W., Li, C., Zhang, M., Sun, Z., Yuan, H., Lin, F., and Li, Q. (2021). An enhanced pedestrian visual-inertial SLAM system aided with vanishing point in indoor environments. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21227428"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sturm, J., Engelhard, N., Endres, F., Burgard, W., and Cremers, D. (2012, January 7\u201312). A benchmark for the evaluation of RGB-D SLAM systems. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Vilamoura-Algarve, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2012.6385773"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seiskari, O., Rantalankila, P., Kannala, J., Ylilammi, J., Rahtu, E., and Solin, A. (2022, January 3\u20138). HybVIO: Pushing the Limits of Real-time Visual-inertial Odometry. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Winter onference on Applications of Computer Vision, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WACV51458.2022.00036"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di, K., Zhao, Q., Wan, W., Wang, Y., and Gao, Y. (2016). RGB-D SLAM based on extended bundle adjustment with 2D and 3D information. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081285"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Newman, P., and Ho, K. (2005, January 18\u201322). SLAM-loop closing with visually salient features. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2008.2004888","article-title":"Efficient view-based SLAM using visual loop closures","volume":"24","author":"Mahon","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oufqir, Z., El Abderrahmani, A., and Satori, K. (2020, January 9\u201311). ARKit and ARCore in serve to augmented reality. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Computer Vision (ISCV), Fez, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCV49265.2020.9204243"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-M-1-2021-761-2021","article-title":"Unveiling large-scale historical contents with V-SLAM and markerless mobile AR solutions","volume":"46","author":"Torresani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5382\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:53:52Z","timestamp":1760140432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/14\/5382"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s22145382"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22145382","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]]}}}