{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T22:22:21Z","timestamp":1783635741917,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"Key Science and Technology Support Program of Gansu Province","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"2019 Chinese Academy of Sciences \u201cLight of the West\u201d Talent Program, Science and Technology Innovation Project of Gansu Province","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"2019 Lanzhou City Science and Technology Plan Project","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"2020 Lanzhou City Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["62162056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62162056"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["20YF8GA048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20YF8GA048"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["CX2JA037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX2JA037"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["17CX2JA039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17CX2JA039"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["2019-4-44"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-4-44"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["2020-RC-116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-RC-116"]}]},{"name":"Gansu Provincial Department of Education: Industry Support Program Project","award":["2022CYZC-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CYZC-12"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The positioning of indoor electronic devices is an essential part of human\u2013computer interaction, and the accuracy of positioning affects the level of user experience. Most existing methods for RF-based device localization choose to ignore or remove the impact of multipath effects. However, exploiting the multipath effect caused by the complex indoor environment helps to improve the model\u2019s localization accuracy. In response to this question, this paper proposes a multipath-assisted localization (MAL) model based on millimeter-wave radar to achieve the localization of indoor electronic devices. The model fully considers the help of the multipath effect when describing the characteristics of the reflected signal and precisely locates the target position by using the MAL area formed by the reflected signal. At the same time, for the situation where the radar in the traditional Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) mode cannot obtain the 3D spatial position information of the target, the advantage of the MAL model is that the 3D information of the target can be obtained after the mining process of the multipath effect. Furthermore, based on the original hardware, it can achieve a breakthrough in angular resolution. Experiments show that our proposed MAL model enables the millimeter-wave multipath positioning model to achieve a 3D positioning error within 15 cm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155671","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T01:41:16Z","timestamp":1659058876000},"page":"5671","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Millimeter-Wave Radar Localization Using Indoor Multipath Effect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9740-0988","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhanjun","family":"Hao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaochao","family":"Dang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongyu","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenze","family":"Ke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science & Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/35.667415","article-title":"Providing universal location services using a wireless E911 location network","volume":"36","author":"Zagami","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2007.12.031","article-title":"Location-based services for elderly and disabled people","volume":"31","author":"Marco","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lugrin, J.L., Kern, F., Schmidt, R., Kleinbeck, C., Roth, D., Daxer, C., Feigl, T., Mutschler, C., and Latoschik, M.E. (2018, January 5\u20137). A location-based VR museum. Proceedings of the 2018 10th International Conference on Virtual Worlds and Games for Serious Applications (VS-Games), W\u00fcrzburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/VS-Games.2018.8493404"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2020.3021342","article-title":"Impact of Information Placement and User Representations in VR on Performance and Embodiment","volume":"28","author":"Seinfeld","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunisada, Y., and Premachandra, C. (2022). High Precision Location Estimation in Mountainous Areas Using GPS. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031149"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2007.07.004","article-title":"GSM indoor localization","volume":"3","author":"Varshavsky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2015.2430281","article-title":"Location Fingerprinting With Bluetooth Low Energy Beacons","volume":"33","author":"Faragher","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rida, M.E., Liu, F., Jadi, Y., Algawhari, A.A.A., and Askourih, A. (2015, January 24\u201326). Indoor location position based on bluetooth signal strength. Proceedings of the 2015 2nd International Conference on Information Science and Control Engineering, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICISCE.2015.177"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2639530","article-title":"Robust Biomechanical Model-Based 3-D Indoor Localization and Tracking Method Using UWB and IMU","volume":"17","author":"Yoon","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1145\/1177352.1177355","article-title":"Object tracking: A survey","volume":"38","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2011.239","article-title":"Tracking-learning-detection","volume":"34","author":"Kalal","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21458","article-title":"Observation-driven Bayesian Filtering for Global Location Estimation in the Field Area","volume":"30","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2015.2467373","article-title":"Personal Mobile Radars with Millimeter-Wave Massive Arrays for Indoor Mapping","volume":"15","author":"Guidi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Texas Intruments (2022, January 01). TI Training & Videos: mmWave Radar Sensors. Available online: https:\/\/training.ti.com\/search-catalog\/field_language\/EN\/categories\/mmwave-radar-sensors."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1145\/2897824.2925953","article-title":"Soli: Ubiquitous gesture sensing with millimeter wave radar","volume":"35","author":"Lien","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Jin, M., He, Y., Wang, W., and Liu, Y. (2021, January 18\u201321). Dancing Waltz with Ghosts: Measuring Sub-mm-Level 2D Rotor Orbit with a Single mmWave Radar. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (co-located with CPS-IoT Week 2021), Nashville, TN, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3412382.3458258"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95516","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2929522","article-title":"Freehand, Agile, and High-Resolution Imaging With Compact mm-Wave Radar","volume":"7","author":"Laviada","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31801","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2902859","article-title":"Near-Field MIMO-SAR Millimeter-Wave Imaging With Sparsely Sampled Aperture Data","volume":"7","author":"Yanik","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"4506705","article-title":"A Full-Level Context Squeeze-and-Excitation ROI Extractor for SAR Ship Instance Segmentation","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., and Zhang, X. (2022). HTC+ for SAR Ship Instance Segmentation. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102395"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., and Zhang, X. (2019). High-Speed Ship Detection in SAR Images Based on a Grid Convolutional Neural Network. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11101206"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Shi, J., and Wei, S. (2019). Depthwise Separable Convolution Neural Network for High-Speed SAR Ship Detection. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11212483"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2021.108365","article-title":"A polarization fusion network with geometric feature embedding for SAR ship classification","volume":"123","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"4511005","article-title":"A Mask Attention Interaction and Scale Enhancement Network for SAR Ship Instance Segmentation","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2021.10.010","article-title":"Balance learning for ship detection from synthetic aperture radar remote sensing imagery","volume":"182","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2011.2111371","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Heart Rate and Patterns of Respiration on a Stationary Subject Using 94-GHz Millimeter-Wave Interferometry","volume":"58","author":"Mikhelson","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Guo, J., He, Y., Jiang, C., Jin, M., Li, S., Zhang, J., Xi, R., and Liu, Y. Measuring Micrometer-Level Vibrations with mmWave Radar. IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput., 2021."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belgiovane, D., and Chen, C.C. (2017, January 19\u201324). Micro-Doppler characteristics of pedestrians and bicycles for automotive radar sensors at 77 GHz. Proceedings of the 2017 11th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.23919\/EuCAP.2017.7928457"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3941","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2816812","article-title":"Indoor Person Identification Using a Low-Power FMCW Radar","volume":"56","author":"Vandersmissen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2015.2491329","article-title":"Human Detection and Activity Classification Based on Micro-Doppler Signatures Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18518","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3053298","article-title":"Micro-Doppler Radar Gait Measurement to Detect Age- and Fall Risk-Related Differences in Gait: A Simulation Study on Comparison of Deep Learning and Gait Parameter-Based Approaches","volume":"9","author":"Saho","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2293534","article-title":"Non-Imaging MM-Wave FMCW Sensor for Pedestrian Detection","volume":"14","author":"Etinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Tian, Y., Zhao, H., Alsheikh, M.A., Li, T., Hristov, R., Kabelac, Z., Katabi, D., and Torralba, A. (2018, January 20\u201325). RF-based 3D skeletons. Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Communication, Budapest Hungary.","DOI":"10.1145\/3230543.3230579"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pegoraro, J., Solimini, D., Matteo, F., Bashirov, E., Meneghello, F., and Rossi, M. (2020, January 21\u201325). Deep Learning for Accurate Indoor Human Tracking with a mm-Wave Radar. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarConf20), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/RadarConf2043947.2020.9266400"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Adib, F., Kabelac, Z., Katabi, D., and Miller, R.C. (2014, January 2\u20134). 3d tracking via body radio reflections. Proceedings of the 11th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI. 14), Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2015.2464177","article-title":"Compressive Sensing-Based Multipath Exploitation for Stationary and Moving Indoor Target Localization","volume":"9","author":"Leigsnering","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4021","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2128331","article-title":"Multipath Model and Exploitation in Through-the-Wall and Urban Radar Sensing","volume":"49","author":"Setlur","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, G., Geng, X., and Lin, Y.-J. (2021). Comprehensive mPoint: A Method for 3D Point Cloud Generation of Human Bodies Utilizing FMCW MIMO mm-Wave Radar. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196455"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dixit, A., Sathyamurthy, J., Rao, S., Gurugopinath, S., and Thiagarajan, G. (2021, January 9\u201311). Detection and Localization of Targets Using Millimeter Wave Radars: An Experimental Study. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Computing and Communication Technologies (CONECCT), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/CONECCT52877.2021.9622554"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5671\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:58:46Z","timestamp":1760140726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5671"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s22155671"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22155671","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]]}}}