{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T19:08:59Z","timestamp":1775761739974,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["11874061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11874061"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021023"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["WST2020002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WST2020002"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS","award":["11874061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11874061"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS","award":["2021023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021023"]}]},{"name":"Youth Innovation Promotion Association CAS","award":["WST2020002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WST2020002"]}]},{"name":"Shandong Province \u201cDouble-Hundred Talent Plan\u201d","award":["11874061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11874061"]}]},{"name":"Shandong Province \u201cDouble-Hundred Talent Plan\u201d","award":["2021023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021023"]}]},{"name":"Shandong Province \u201cDouble-Hundred Talent Plan\u201d","award":["WST2020002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WST2020002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In underwater acoustic communication (UAC) systems, the channel characteristics are mainly affected by spatiotemporal changes, which are specifically manifested by two factors: the effects of refraction and scattering caused by seawater layered media on the sound field and the random fluctuations from the sea floor and surface. Due to the time-varying and space-varying characteristics of a channel, the communication signals have significant variations in time and space. Furthermore, the signal shows frequency-selective fading in the frequency domain and signal waveform distortion in the time domain, which seriously affect the performance of a UAC system. Techniques such as error correction coding or space diversity are usually adopted by UAC systems to neutralize or eliminate the effects of deep fading and signal distortion, which results in a significant waste of limited communication resources. From the perspective of the sound field, this study used experimental data to analyze the spatiotemporal fluctuation characteristics of the signal and noise fields and then summarized the temporal and spatial variation rules. The influence of the system then guided the parameter configuration and network protocol optimization of the underwater acoustic communication system by reasonably selecting the communication signal parameters, such as frequency, bandwidth, equipment deployment depth, and horizontal distance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155795","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T23:33:01Z","timestamp":1659569581000},"page":"5795","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Influence of Temporal and Spatial Fluctuations of the Shallow Sea Acoustic Field on Underwater Acoustic Communication"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Zhichao","family":"Lv","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Libin","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8594-3408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Ocean Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1960-4456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jixing","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Acoustics, Institute of Acoustics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"North China Sea Marine Technical Support Center, State Oceanic Administration, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Acoustic Science and Technology Laboratory, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hui, J., and Sheng, X. (2007). Underwater Acoustic Channel, National Defense Industry Press."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"73","article-title":"Theoretical analysis and experimental results of interference striation pattern of underwater target radiated noise in shallow water waveguide","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Ournal Acoust."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Wang, H., Zhao, Y., Wu, B., Chen, Y., and Chen, H. (2011, January 14\u201316). Estimation of source parameters based on underwater acoustic interference pattern in shallow water. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communications and Computing, Xi\u2019an, China."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"3","article-title":"Analytical study on acoustic interference pattern in shallow water","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Acust."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2961145","article-title":"Underwater Ambient Noise","volume":"3","author":"Dahl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acoust. Today"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"194","article-title":"Ambient Noise in the Sea","volume":"86","author":"Urick","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1936","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1909155","article-title":"Acoustic Ambient Noise in the Ocean: Spectra and Sources","volume":"34","author":"Wenz","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3567084","article-title":"Low frequency deep ocean ambient noise trend in the Northeast Pacific Ocean","volume":"129","author":"Ross","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3383938","article-title":"Trends in low-frequency deep ocean ambient noise levels: New results from old data","volume":"127","author":"Chapman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2216565","article-title":"Increases in deep ocean ambient noise in the Northeast Pacific west of San Nicolas Island, California","volume":"120","author":"Mcdonald","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1121\/1.381204","article-title":"Examination of attenuation at very low frequencies using the deep-water ambient noise field","volume":"60","author":"Kibblewhite","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1109\/48.103524","article-title":"Depth Dependence of Noise Resulting from Ship Traffic and Wind","volume":"15","author":"Shooter","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1121\/1.390411","article-title":"Measurements on the origin of the wind-dependent ambient noise variability in shallow water","volume":"75","author":"Wille","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1121\/1.398685","article-title":"Mechanics of underwater noise","volume":"86","author":"Ross","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2152","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1919337","article-title":"Ambient Sea Noise at Low Frequencies in Shallow Water of the Scotian Shelf","volume":"36","author":"Piggott","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1988","DOI":"10.1121\/1.384439","article-title":"Spatial correlation of surface generated noise in a stratified ocean","volume":"67","author":"Kuperman","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1121\/1.405437","article-title":"Modeling ambient noise in three-dimensional ocean environments","volume":"93","author":"Perkins","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1909110","article-title":"Spatial-Correlation Functions for Various Noise Models","volume":"34","author":"Cron","year":"1962","journal-title":"Acoust. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Li, T. (2010). Research on the Spatial Correlation of the Acoustic Vector Field for Surface-Generated Noise in Shallow Water. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Harbin Engineering University]."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"975","article-title":"Spatial Correlation of Surface Noise Received by Acoustic Vector Sensors in a Horizontally Stratified Medium","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Harbin Eng. Univ."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Shang, H. (2008). Research on the Correlation of Ambient Noise Based on Acoustic Vector Hydrophone. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Harbin Engineering University]."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1004","article-title":"Spatial Correlation Coefficients of Sound Pressure for General Ambient Noise Models","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Tech. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"121","article-title":"Ocean Surface Wave Effect on the Spatial Characteristics of Ambient noise","volume":"66","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Phys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2021.108299","article-title":"Time-varying carrier frequency offset estimation in OFDM underwater acoustic communication","volume":"190","author":"Avrashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2020.107820","article-title":"Analysis of wave fluctuation on underwater acoustic communication based USV","volume":"175","author":"Lv","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.5614\/j.eng.technol.sci.2018.50.3.2","article-title":"Parameter estimation for class a modeled ocean ambient noise","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Eng. Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10835","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3121405","article-title":"Multireceiver SAS imagery based on monostatic conversion","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, J., Ra, H., Youn, C., and Kim, K. (2021). Experimental Results of Underwater Acoustic Communication with Nonlinear Frequency Modulation Waveform. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217194"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2021.108515","article-title":"Deep learning aided OFDM receiver for underwater acoustic communications","volume":"187","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5795\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:03:34Z","timestamp":1760141014000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/15\/5795"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s22155795"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22155795","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]}}}