{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T07:08:17Z","timestamp":1778224097555,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Michigan Department of Transportation"},{"name":"Michigan Economic Development Corporation"},{"name":"Michigan Office of Future Mobility and Electrification"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Commercialization of autonomous vehicle technology is a major goal of the automotive industry, thus research in this space is rapidly expanding across the world. However, despite this high level of research activity, literature detailing a straightforward and cost-effective approach to the development of an AV research platform is sparse. To address this need, we present the methodology and results regarding the AV instrumentation and controls of a 2019 Kia Niro which was developed for a local AV pilot program. This platform includes a drive-by-wire actuation kit, Aptiv electronically scanning radar, stereo camera, MobilEye computer vision system, LiDAR, inertial measurement unit, two global positioning system receivers to provide heading information, and an in-vehicle computer for driving environment perception and path planning. Robotic Operating System software is used as the system middleware between the instruments and the autonomous application algorithms. After selection, installation, and integration of these components, our results show successful utilization of all sensors, drive-by-wire functionality, a total additional power* consumption of 242.8 Watts (*Typical), and an overall cost of $118,189 USD, which is a significant saving compared to other commercially available systems with similar functionality. This vehicle continues to serve as our primary AV research and development platform.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22165999","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T23:05:49Z","timestamp":1660259149000},"page":"5999","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Development of an Energy Efficient and Cost Effective Autonomous Vehicle Research Platform"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Nicholas E.","family":"Brown","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Michigan University, 1903 W Michigan Ave., Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Johan F.","family":"Rojas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Michigan University, 1903 W Michigan Ave., Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicholas A.","family":"Goberville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Michigan University, 1903 W Michigan Ave., Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7692-7190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamzeh","family":"Alzubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEV North America Inc., 4554 Glenmeade Ln, Auburn Hills, MI 48326, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qusay","family":"AlRousan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEV North America Inc., 4554 Glenmeade Ln, Auburn Hills, MI 48326, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8073-7683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chieh (Ross)","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shean","family":"Huff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jackeline","family":"Rios-Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ali Riza","family":"Ekti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tim J.","family":"LaClair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Michigan University, 1903 W Michigan Ave., Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0579-4685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zachary D.","family":"Asher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Western Michigan University, 1903 W Michigan Ave., Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MSPEC.2017.7833502","article-title":"Autonomous ships on the high seas","volume":"54","author":"Levander","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Spectr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1109\/34.3899","article-title":"VITS-a vision system for autonomous land vehicle navigation","volume":"10","author":"Turk","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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