{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T19:21:35Z","timestamp":1775157695894,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,12]],"date-time":"2022-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Research Centre for Non-Destructive Evaluation (RCNDE)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/L015587\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/L015587\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inspection of components with surface discontinuities is an area that volumetric Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods, such as ultrasonic and radiographic, struggle in detection and characterisation. This coupled with the industrial desire to detect surface-breaking defects of components at the point of manufacture and\/or maintenance, to increase design lifetime and further embed sustainability in their business models, is driving the increased adoption of Eddy Current Testing (ECT). Moreover, as businesses move toward Industry 4.0, demand for robotic delivery of NDT has grown. In this work, the authors present the novel implementation and use of a flexible robotic cell to deliver an eddy current array to inspect stress corrosion cracking on a nuclear canister made from 1.4404 stainless steel. Three 180-degree scans at different heights on one side of the canister were performed, and the acquired impedance data were vertically stitched together to show the full extent of the cracking. Axial and transversal datasets, corresponding to the transmit\/receive coil configurations of the array elements, were simultaneously acquired at transmission frequencies 250, 300, 400, and 450 kHz and allowed for the generation of several impedance C-scan images. The variation in the lift-off of the eddy current array was innovatively minimised through the use of a force\u2013torque sensor, a padded flexible ECT array and a PI control system. Through the use of bespoke software, the impedance data were logged in real-time (\u22647 ms), displayed to the user, saved to a binary file, and flexibly post-processed via phase-rotation and mixing of the impedance data of different frequency and coil configuration channels. Phase rotation alone demonstrated an average increase in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of 4.53 decibels across all datasets acquired, while a selective sum and average mixing technique was shown to increase the SNR by an average of 1.19 decibels. The results show how robotic delivery of eddy current arrays, and innovative post-processing, can allow for repeatable and flexible surface inspection, suitable for the challenges faced in many quality-focused industries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T23:44:03Z","timestamp":1660607043000},"page":"6036","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Automated Real-Time Eddy Current Array Inspection of Nuclear Assets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Euan Alexander","family":"Foster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2442-0670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gary","family":"Bolton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Nuclear Laboratory LTD., Warrington WA3 6AE, UK"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Bernard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sellafield LTD., Sellafield, Seascale, Cumbria CA20 1PG, UK"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"McInnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"given":"Shaun","family":"McKnight","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"given":"Ewan","family":"Nicolson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3465-8076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charalampos","family":"Loukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4055-3534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Momchil","family":"Vasilev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8538-2914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dave","family":"Lines","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"given":"Ehsan","family":"Mohseni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Gachagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0312-8766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gareth","family":"Pierce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"given":"Charles N.","family":"Macleod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SEARCH: Sensor Enabled Automation, Robotics & Control Hub, Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering (CUE), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Market Size (2022, June 07). 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