{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T13:07:14Z","timestamp":1772197634471,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]],"date-time":"2022-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660348800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Shandong Province (Major Technological Innovation Project)","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}]},{"name":"Colleges and Universities Youth Innovation and techniques Support Program of Shandong Province","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}]},{"name":"Joint Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["2021CXGC010704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021CXGC010704"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["62005137"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62005137"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["2019KJJ004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019KJJ004"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["ZR2020QF092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2020QF092"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["ZR2021LLZ014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2021LLZ014"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["2022PY008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PY008"]}]},{"name":"Science, education and industry integration innovation pilot project of Qilu university of techniques","award":["2022PX002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022PX002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Distributed acoustic sensing techniques based on Rayleigh scattering have been widely used in many applications due to their unique advantages, such as long-distance detection, high spatial resolution, and wide sensing bandwidth. In this paper, we provide a review of the recent advancements in distributed acoustic sensing techniques. The research progress and operation principles are systematically reviewed. The pivotal technologies and solutions applied to distributed acoustic sensing are introduced in terms of polarization fading, coherent fading, spatial resolution, frequency response, signal-to-noise ratio, and sensing distance. The applications of the distributed acoustic sensing are covered, including perimeter security, earthquake monitoring, energy exploration, underwater positioning, and railway monitoring. The potential developments of the distributed acoustic sensing techniques are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T23:44:03Z","timestamp":1660607043000},"page":"6060","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":106,"title":["Research Progress in Distributed Acoustic Sensing Techniques"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Ying","family":"Shang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Maocheng","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Jian","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Yuankai","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Jichao","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Wenan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Yingying","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Yanjie","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China"}]},{"given":"Jiasheng","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250101, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Zhao, Z. (1993). Optical Fiber Communication and Optical Fiber Sensing, Shanghai Science and techniques Literature Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.20.001060","article-title":"Polarization-optical time domain reflectometry: A technique for the measurement of field distributions","volume":"20","author":"Rogers","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Optics."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"2074","article-title":"Optical fiber sensing techniques based on Rayleigh backscattering curve","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE ITOEC"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8601","DOI":"10.3390\/s120708601","article-title":"Recent progress in distributed fiber optic sensors","volume":"12","author":"Bao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.73.001175","article-title":"Rayleigh backscattering theory for single-mode optical fibers","volume":"73","author":"Nakazawa","year":"1983","journal-title":"JOSA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3281","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2604859","article-title":"Distributed fiber-optic vibration sensing based on phase extraction from optical reflectometry","volume":"35","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2018.06.005","article-title":"Fully modelling based intrusion discrimination in optical fiber perimeter security system","volume":"45","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6319","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85621-8","article-title":"Source location of volcanic earthquakes and subsurface characterization using fiber-optic cable and distributed acoustic sensing system","volume":"11","author":"Nishimura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.12.011","article-title":"Design, fabrication and characterization of SAW pressure sensors for offshore oil and gas exploration","volume":"222","author":"Lucia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuator. A Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shang, Y., Wang, C., Zhang, Y., Zhao, W.A., Ni, J.S., and Peng, G.D. (2022). Non-Intrusive Pipeline Flow Detection Based on Distributed Fiber Turbulent Vibration Sensing. Sens., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22114044"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1080\/00423110701426690","article-title":"Control and monitoring for railway vehicle dynamics","volume":"45","author":"Bruni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2112","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.15.002112","article-title":"Fiber waveguides: A novel technique for investigating attenuation characteristics","volume":"15","author":"Barnoski","year":"1976","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19820585","article-title":"OTDR in single-mode fiber at 1.5 \u03bcm using homodyne detection","volume":"18","author":"Healey","year":"1982","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Taylor, H.F., and Lee, C.E. (1993). Apparatus and Method for Fiber Optic Intrusion Sensing. (USOO5194847A), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085204","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/8\/085204","article-title":"A distributed optical fiber dynamic strain sensor based on phase-OTDR","volume":"24","author":"Masoudi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2811","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2015.2414416","article-title":"Phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometer based on phase-generated carrier algorithm","volume":"33","author":"Fang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7810","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.007810","article-title":"Quantitative measurement of dynamic nanostrain based on a phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometer","volume":"55","author":"Dong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Optics."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"5","article-title":"Distributed fiber acoustic sensing system based on polarization diversity techniques","volume":"44","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Commun. Tech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"041302","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5113955","article-title":"Distributed optical fiber sensing: Review and perspective","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.29026\/oea.2022.200078","article-title":"Advances in phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opto-Electron. Adv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3671","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3059771","article-title":"Optical fiber distributed acoustic sensors: A review","volume":"39","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2947","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2013.2275179","article-title":"Characteristics and Explanations of interference fading of a phi-OTDR with a multi-frequency source","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Goldsmith, A. (2007). Wireless Communications, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"9","article-title":"Statistical Properties of Laser Speckle Patterns","volume":"9","author":"Goodman","year":"1975","journal-title":"Top. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2005.849924","article-title":"Distributed fiber-optic intrusion sensor system","volume":"23","author":"Juarez","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2014.2346760","article-title":"Real-Time Position and Speed Monitoring of Trains Using Phase-Sensitive OTDR","volume":"26","author":"Peng","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13804","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.013804","article-title":"Ultra-long high-sensitivity \u03a6-OTDR for high spatial resolution intrusion detection of pipelines","volume":"22","author":"Peng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, D., Parker, T., Kashikar, S., Todorov, M., and Bostick, T. (2012, January 4\u20137). Vertical Seismic Profiling Using a Fiber-optic Cable as a Distributed Acoustic Sensor. Proceedings of the 74th EAGE Conference & Exhibition, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.3997\/2214-4609.20148799"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2015.2504968","article-title":"Theoretical and experimental analysis of \u03a6-OTDR based on polarization diversity detection","volume":"28","author":"Ren","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"889","article-title":"An interferometric fiber optic sensor for eliminating polarization fading","volume":"4","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sci. Instrument."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065101","DOI":"10.1088\/1054-660X\/25\/6\/065101","article-title":"A phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometer with dual-pulse diverse frequency probe signal","volume":"25","author":"Alekseev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Laser Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8315","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.008315","article-title":"Phase-detection distributed fiber-optic vibration sensor without fading-noise based on time-gated digital OFDR","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"18","article-title":"Polarization dependent noise suppression for fiber distributed acoustic sensor with birefringence estimation","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"CLEO Appl. Tech. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6121","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2020.3003440","article-title":"Bipolar-coding \u03a6-OTDR with interference fading elimination and frequency drift compensation","volume":"38","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21081","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.396460","article-title":"Introducing coherent MIMO sensing, a fading-resilient, polarization-independent approach to \u03a6-OTDR","volume":"28","author":"Guerrier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0706003","DOI":"10.3788\/AOS202141.0706003","article-title":"Multicore fiber distributed acoustic sensing","volume":"41","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Opt. Sinica."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17921","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-97647-z","article-title":"Frequency multiplexed coherent \u03a6-OTDR","volume":"11","author":"Ogden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2021.3121064","article-title":"Interference-fading-suppressed pulse-coding \u03a6-OTDR using spectrum extraction and rotated-vector-sum method","volume":"13","author":"Cui","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15452","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.422608","article-title":"Interference fading suppression in \u03a6-OTDR using space-division multiplexed probes","volume":"29","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2017.2753236","article-title":"Suppression of signal fading with multi-wavelength laser in polarization OTDR","volume":"29","author":"Cao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1985.1096357","article-title":"Analysis and simulation of a digital mobile channel using orthogonal frequency division multiplexing","volume":"33","author":"Cimini","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cogn. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2018.2881757","article-title":"Interference-fading-free \u03a6-OTDR based on differential phase shift pulsing techniques","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kishida, K., Guzik, A., Nishiguchi, K., and He, Z. (2021). Development of real-time time gated digital (TGD) OFDR method and its performance verification. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21144865"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Meng, Z., Zabihi, M., Zhang, X., and Zhang, Y. (2019). Performance enhancement methods for the distributed acoustic sensors based on frequency division multiplexing. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8060617"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Liu, J., Xiong, F., and Zhang, X. (2021). A space-division multiplexing method for fading noise suppression in the \u03a6-OTDR system. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051694"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2020.3023699","article-title":"Suppression of the interference fading in phase-sensitive OTDR with phase-shift transform","volume":"39","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"321003","article-title":"Optical distributed acoustic sensing based on the phase optical time-domain reflectometry","volume":"46","author":"Shang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infrared Laser Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15425","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.424010","article-title":"Fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensor utilizing LiNbO3 straight through waveguide phase modulator","volume":"29","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9769","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.438572","article-title":"Using DFB laser self-injection locked to an optical waveguide ring resonator as a light source of \u03a6-OTDR","volume":"60","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Optics."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29415","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.029415","article-title":"Fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensor based on a chirped pulse and a non-matched filter","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-020-0604-3","article-title":"Distributed fiber birefringence measurement using pulse-compression \u03a6-OTDR","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.420047","article-title":"Distributed dynamic strain sensing in coherent \u03a6-OTDR with pulse conversion algorithm","volume":"46","author":"Qian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shan, Y., Ji, W., Wang, Q., and Zhang, X. (2018). Performance optimization for phase-sensitive OTDR sensing system based on multi-spatial resolution analysis. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010083"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2021.3122151","article-title":"Wavelength-tunable OTDR for DWDM-PON based on optimized wavelet denoising","volume":"33","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"21","article-title":"Double-frequency ultrasonic measurement based on fiber laser sensor","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inf. techniques."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2796","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2803750","article-title":"Distributed acoustic sensor using broadband weak FBG array for large temperature tolerance","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"2241","article-title":"Forward transmission based ultra-long distributed vibration sensing with wide frequency response","volume":"39","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2019.101995","article-title":"A visibility enhanced broadband phase-sensitive OTDR based on the UWFBG array and frequency-division-multiplexing","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7740","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.432727","article-title":"Heterogeneous-frequency-double-pulse chain and weak FBG array for quasi-distributed acoustic sensing with improved response bandwidth","volume":"60","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Optics."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13290","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3068380","article-title":"Distributed fiber-optic acoustic sensor for sparse-wideband vibration sensing with time delay sampling","volume":"21","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1364\/OSAC.413584","article-title":"Distributed multimode fiber \u03a6-OTDR sensor using a high-speed camera","volume":"4","author":"Murray","year":"2020","journal-title":"OSA Continuum."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1","article-title":"A high performance distributed optical fiber sensor based on \u03a6-OTDR for dynamic strain measurement","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2020.3040274","article-title":"An enhanced distributed acoustic sensor with large temperature tolerance based on ultra-weak fiber Bragg grating array","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16931","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.455252","article-title":"Large-capacity and long-distance distributed acoustic sensing based on an ultra-weak fiber Bragg grating array with an optimized pulsed optical power arrangement","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6348","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3098330","article-title":"Practical performance enhancement of DAS by using dense multichannel signal integration","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Zou, J., Xu, Y., Bao, Q., and Jin, B. (2020). Optical fiber vibration sensor using least mean square error algorithm. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072000"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"030601","DOI":"10.3788\/COL202119.030601","article-title":"Classification of interference-fading tolerant \u03a6-OTDR signal using optimal peak-seeking and machine learning","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.3390\/s18040976","article-title":"Ultra-long-distance hybrid BOTDA\/\u03a6-OTDR","volume":"18","author":"Fu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901276","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2019.2901276","article-title":"108-km distributed acoustic sensor with 220-p\u03b5\/\u221aHz strain resolution and 5-m spatial resolution","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/LSENS.2019.2895249","article-title":"Pushing the reach of fiber distributed acoustic sensing to 125 km without the use of amplifification","volume":"3","author":"Cedilnik","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Direct Detection fiber optic distributed acoustic sensor with a mean SNR of 7.3 dB at 102.7 km","volume":"11","author":"Uyar","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.413206","article-title":"152km-range single-ended distributed acoustic sensor based on in-line optical amplification and micro machined enhanced backscattering fiber","volume":"46","author":"Masoudi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hennin, S., Germana, G., and Garcia, L. (2007, January 16\u201317). Integrated Perimeter Security System. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, Woburn, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/THS.2007.370022"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4548","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3070583","article-title":"An easy access method for event recognition of \u03a6-OTDR sensing system based on transfer learning","volume":"39","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3129473","article-title":"Mixed intrusion events recognition based on group convolutional neural networks in DAS system","volume":"22","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9194","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3055346","article-title":"An Interferometric optical fiber perimeter security system based on multi-domain feature fusion and SVM","volume":"21","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.117965","article-title":"Earthquake emergency response framework on campus based on multi-source data monitoring","volume":"238","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean Prod."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2478.12471","article-title":"A study of the geophysical response of distributed fiber optic acoustic sensors through laboratory-scale experiments","volume":"65","author":"Papp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"2590","article-title":"Seismic observation and subsurface structure detection using urban communication fiber optic cables","volume":"66","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020JB021493","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JB021493","article-title":"Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) for natural microseismicity studies: A case study from antarctica","volume":"126","author":"Hudson","year":"2021","journal-title":"JGR Solid Earth."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2441","DOI":"10.1785\/0220200416","article-title":"Distributed acoustic sensing using dark fiber for array detection of regional earthquakes","volume":"92","author":"Nayak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2022.105828","article-title":"Exploring the spatial distribution of distributed energy in China","volume":"107","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy. Econ."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"7","article-title":"Fiber optic distributed seismic wave detection system and its deployment optimization research","volume":"30","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Shandong Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2019.102006","article-title":"Experimental study on distributed optical fiber sensing monitoring for ground surface deformation in extra-thick coal seam mining under ultra-thick conglomerate","volume":"53","author":"Chai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"8","article-title":"Distributed fiber optic acoustic seismic wave exploration techniques","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Shandong Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wamriew, D., Pevzner, R., Maltsev, E., and Pissarenko, D. (2021). Deep neural networks for detection and position of microseismic events and velocity model inversion from microseismic data acquired by distributed acoustic sensing array. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196627"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2018.05.025","article-title":"EODL: Energy optimized distributed localization method in three-dimensional underwater acoustic sensors networks","volume":"141","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13115","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.418920","article-title":"Submarine cable monitoring system based on enhanced COTDR with simultaneous loss measurement and vibration monitoring ability","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0004129","article-title":"Preliminary assessment of ship detection and trajectory evaluation using distributed acoustic sensing on an optical fiber telecom cable","volume":"149","author":"Rivet","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12880","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.422255","article-title":"Underwater acoustic source localization based on phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometry","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2022.128319","article-title":"Underwater dynamic distance measurement using a cross-sampling dual-comb","volume":"517","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.106769","article-title":"An analysis of railway track behaviour based on distributed fiber acoustic sensing","volume":"142","author":"Milne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal. Proc."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409719860718","article-title":"Methods for aligning near-continuous railway track inspection data","volume":"234","author":"Palese","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part. F-J. Rail Rapid Transit."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2018.07.009","article-title":"Railway track inspection and maintenance priorities due to dynamic coupling effects of dipped rails and differential track settlements","volume":"93","author":"Kaewunruen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2021.126981","article-title":"Research on application of deep convolutional network in high-speed railway track inspection based on distributed fiber acoustic sensing","volume":"492","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2740","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2018.2877171","article-title":"Cooperative prescribed performance tracking control for multiple high-speed trains in moving block signaling system","volume":"20","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Hill, R.J., and Bond, L.J. (1995, January 4\u20136). Modelling moving-block railway signalling systems using discrete-event simulation. Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE ASME Joint Railroad Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowarik, S., Hussels, M.T., Chruscicki, S., M\u00fcnzenberger, S., L\u00e4mmerhirt, S., Pohl, P., and Schubert, M. (2020). Fiber optic train monitoring with distributed acoustic sensing: Conventional and neural network data analysis. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020450"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiesmeyr, C., Litzenberger, M., Waser, M., Papp, A., Garn, H., Neunteufel, G., and D\u00f6ller, H. (2020). Real-time train tracking from distributed acoustic sensing data. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10020448"},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"116","article-title":"AI-driven applications over telecom networks by distributed fiber optic sensing technologies","volume":"12028","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"SPIE"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/16\/6060\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:08:17Z","timestamp":1760141297000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/16\/6060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s22166060"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22166060","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,13]]}}}