{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:07:42Z","timestamp":1760231262537,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,4]],"date-time":"2022-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1662249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"SIMILE project (informative System for the Integrated Monitoring of Insubric Lakes and their Ecosystems","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["523544"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["523544"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the European Commission and the Swiss Confederation in the framework of the INTERREG Italy-Switzerland 2014\u20132021 programme","award":["523544"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["523544"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In some sectors of the water resources management, the digital revolution process is slowed by some blocking factors such as costs, lack of digital expertise, resistance to change, etc. In addition, in the era of Big Data, many are the sources of information available in this field, but they are often not fully integrated. The adoption of different proprietary solutions to sense, collect and manage data is one of the main problems that hampers the availability of a fully integrated system. In this context, the aim of the project is to verify if a fully open, cost-effective and replicable digital ecosystem for lake monitoring can fill this gap and help the digitalization process using cloud based technology and an Automatic High-Frequency Monitoring System (AHFM) built using open hardware and software components. Once developed, the system is tested and validated in a real case scenario by integrating the historical databases and by checking the performance of the AHFM system. The solution applied the edge computing paradigm in order to move some computational work from server to the edge and fully exploiting the potential offered by low power consuming devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22176684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,8]],"date-time":"2022-09-08T04:18:32Z","timestamp":1662610712000},"page":"6684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Open and Cost-Effective Digital Ecosystem for Lake Water Quality Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7040-4364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Strigaro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences (DSTA), University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Environment, Construction and Design, University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Campus Mendrisio, Via Francesco Catenazzi 23, 6850 Mendrisio, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2527-1416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimiliano","family":"Cannata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Environment, Construction and Design, University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Campus Mendrisio, Via Francesco Catenazzi 23, 6850 Mendrisio, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6438-9452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Lepori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Environment, Construction and Design, University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Campus Mendrisio, Via Francesco Catenazzi 23, 6850 Mendrisio, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4617-305X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilla","family":"Capelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Environment, Construction and Design, University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Campus Mendrisio, Via Francesco Catenazzi 23, 6850 Mendrisio, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3627-0363","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Lami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Water Research Institute (CNR-IRSA), Largo Tonolli 50, 28922 Verbania, Italy"}]},{"given":"Dario","family":"Manca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Council of Italy, Water Research Institute (CNR-IRSA), Largo Tonolli 50, 28922 Verbania, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9863-3476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvio","family":"Seno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences (DSTA), University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, Department of Environment, Construction and Design, University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Campus Mendrisio, Via Francesco Catenazzi 23, 6850 Mendrisio, Switzerland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fath, B. (2019). The Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystems (WEFE) Nexus. Encyclopedia of Ecology, Elsevier. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-409548-9.11003-6"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Cronache, R. (2022, June 21). Siccit\u00e0, sul Po la pi\u00f9 grave crisi degli ultimi 70 anni. Terna: \u00abPoca acqua per raffreddare le centrali\u00bb. Available online: https:\/\/www.corriere.it\/cronache\/22_giugno_10\/siccita-emergenza-bacino-po-la-piu-grave-crisi-ultimi-70-anni-0de23f50-e8b8-11ec-a288-5db7a6019886.shtml."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, L.T., and Goethals, P.L.M. (2019). Opportunities and Challenges for the Sustainability of Lakes and Reservoirs in Relation to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11071462"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-020-04467-9","article-title":"Effects of Phosphorus Control on Primary Productivity and Deep-Water Oxygenation: Insights from Lake Lugano (Switzerland and Italy)","volume":"848","author":"Lepori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2006.51.1_part_2.0356","article-title":"Recent Advances in the Understanding and Management of Eutrophication","volume":"51","author":"Schindler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1002\/iroh.19840690206","article-title":"OECD: Eutrophication of Waters. Monitoring, Assessment and Control.\u2014154 Pp. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development 1982. (Publi\u00e9 En Fran\u00e7ais Sous Le Titre \u00bbEutrophication Des Eaux. M\u00e9thodes de Surveillance, d\u2019Evaluation et de Lutte\u00ab)","volume":"69","author":"Caspers","year":"1984","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. Hydrogr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-018-3575-2","article-title":"Effects of Winter Weather and Mixing Regime on the Restoration of a Deep Perialpine Lake (Lake Lugano, Switzerland and Italy)","volume":"824","author":"Lepori","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2941","DOI":"10.1080\/00207543.2018.1444806","article-title":"Industry 4.0: State of the Art and Future Trends","volume":"56","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zambon, I., Cecchini, M., Egidi, G., Saporito, M.G., and Colantoni, A. (2019). Revolution 4.0: Industry vs. Agriculture in a Future Development for SMEs. Processes, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr7010036"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119869","article-title":"Industry 4.0, Digitization, and Opportunities for Sustainability","volume":"252","author":"Ghobakhloo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Retrospective and Prospective of Hydro-Met Monitoring System in the Canton Ticino, Switzerland","volume":"65","author":"Pozzoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ohx.2019.e00073","article-title":"AudioMoth: A Low-Cost Acoustic Device for Monitoring Biodiversity and the Environment","volume":"6","author":"Hill","year":"2019","journal-title":"HardwareX"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2019.116946","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of Twelve Low-Cost PM2.5 Sensors at an Ambient Air Monitoring Site","volume":"216","author":"Feenstra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ambro\u017e, M., Hudomalj, U., Marin\u0161ek, A., and Kamnik, R. (2019). Raspberry Pi-Based Low-Cost Connected Device for Assessing Road Surface Friction. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8030341"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.9b02095","article-title":"Fully Integrated, Simple, and Low-Cost Electrochemical Sensor Array for in Situ Water Quality Monitoring","volume":"5","author":"Alam","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sunny, A.I., Zhao, A., Li, L., and Kanteh Sakiliba, S. (2021). Low-Cost IoT-Based Sensor System: A Case Study on Harsh Environmental Monitoring. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21010214"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strigaro, D., Cannata, M., and Antonovic, M. (2019). Boosting a Weather Monitoring System in Low Income Economies Using Open and Non-Conventional Systems: Data Quality Analysis. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051185"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVI-4-W2-2021-25-2021","article-title":"FOSS4G Based High Frequency and Interoperable Lake Water-Quality Monitoring System","volume":"Volume XLVI-4-W2-2021","author":"Cannata","year":"2021","journal-title":"The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Commissione Internazionale per la Protezione delle Acque Italo-Svizzere (2021). Ricerche Sull\u2019evoluzione Del Lago Di Lugano. Aspetti Limnologici. Programma Triennale 2019\u20132021, Available online: https:\/\/www.cipais.org\/modules.php?name=cipais&pagina=lago-lugano#rapporti."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Laas, A., de Eyto, E., Pierson, D.C., and Jennings, E. (2022, August 01). NETLAKE Guidelines for Automated Monitoring System Development. Available online: https:\/\/eprints.dkit.ie\/524\/."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112108","article-title":"Costs and benefits of automated high-frequency environmental monitoring\u2014The case of lake water management","volume":"285","author":"Furuseth","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1544","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1544","article-title":"L\u00e9XPLORE: A Floating Laboratory on Lake Geneva Offering Unique Lake Research Opportunities","volume":"8","author":"Bouffard","year":"2021","journal-title":"WIREs Water"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Sankaran, M. (2022, August 01). The Future of Digital Water Quality Monitoring. Available online: https:\/\/www.wqpmag.com\/web-exclusive\/future-digital-water-quality-monitoring."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Dutta, S., Geiger, T., and Lanvin, B. (2015). The Global Information Technology Report 2015, World Economic Forum."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"121","article-title":"Maximizing the Impact of Digitization","volume":"2012","author":"Sabbagh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glob. Inf. Technol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmsy.2021.03.006","article-title":"Past, Present, and Future Barriers to Digital Transformation in Manufacturing: A Review","volume":"60","author":"Jones","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2018.04.005","article-title":"Environmental Data Science","volume":"106","author":"Gibert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sima, V., Gheorghe, I.G., Subi\u0107, J., and Nancu, D. (2020). Influences of the Industry 4.0 Revolution on the Human Capital Development and Consumer Behavior: A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12104035"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2019.03.129","article-title":"Barriers for the Digitalization of Servitization","volume":"83","author":"Marcon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Desai, J.R. (2022, August 01). Internet of Things: Architecture, Protocols, and Interoperability as a Major Challenge. Available online: https:\/\/www.igi-global.com\/chapter\/internet-of-things\/www.igi-global.com\/chapter\/internet-of-things\/233262."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/18.2.117","article-title":"The Use of Radio-active Carbon (C14) for Measuring Organic Production in the Sea","volume":"18","author":"Nielsen","year":"1952","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1139\/f72-250","article-title":"Acidification and Bubbling as an Alternative to Filtration in Determining Phytoplankton Production by the 14C Method","volume":"29","author":"Schindler","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Fish. Res. Board Can."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.4319\/lom.2010.8.0628","article-title":"Lake Metabolism and the Diel Oxygen Technique: State of the Science","volume":"8","author":"Staehr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"OECD (1982). Eutrophication of Waters: Monitoring, Assessment and Control, OECD Publications and Information Center. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s00778-007-0044-3","article-title":"Service Oriented Architectures: Approaches, Technologies and Research Issues","volume":"16","author":"Papazoglou","year":"2007","journal-title":"VLDB J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1504\/IJBPIM.2007.015132","article-title":"An SOA-based Architecture Framework","volume":"2","author":"Aalst","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Bus. Process Integr. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2009.08.005","article-title":"Service-Oriented Applications for Environmental Models: Reusable Geospatial Services","volume":"25","author":"Granell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1700175","article-title":"Consolidate IoT Edge Computing with Lightweight Virtualization","volume":"32","author":"Morabito","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1701231","article-title":"Edge Computing in IoT-Based Manufacturing","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynolds, C.S. (2006). The Ecology of Phytoplankton, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511542145"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2013.862572","article-title":"istSOS, a New Sensor Observation Management System: Software Architecture and a Real-Case Application for Flood Protection","volume":"6","author":"Cannata","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Br\u00f6ring, A., Stasch, C., and Echterhoff, J. (2012). OGC Sensor Observation Service Interface Standard, Open Geospatial Consortium. Version 2.0; Report."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Salvati, M., Brambilla, E., and Grafiche Futura (2008). Data Quality Control Procedures in Alpine Metereological Services, Universit\u00e0 di Trento. Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Zahumensk\u1ef3, I. (2004). Guidelines on Quality Control Procedures for Data from Automatic Weather Stations, World Meteorological Organization."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<0474:QAPITO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Quality Assurance Procedures in the Oklahoma Mesonetwork","volume":"17","author":"Shafer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1998)079<1357:AEDDDF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An Expanded Digital Daily Database for Climatic Resources Applications in the Midwestern United States","volume":"79","author":"Kunkel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1690.1","article-title":"The West Texas Mesonet: A Technical Overview","volume":"22","author":"Schroeder","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)90083-3","article-title":"Data Quality Checking for Single Station Meteorological Databases","volume":"69","author":"Meek","year":"1994","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-017-3426-6","article-title":"Do Current European Lake Monitoring Programmes Reliably Estimate Phytoplankton Community Changes?","volume":"824","author":"Bergkemper","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"WMO (2021). State of the Global Climate 2021: WMO Provisional Report, WMO."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1718","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5291","article-title":"Will Drought Events Become More Frequent and Severe in Europe?","volume":"38","author":"Spinoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.12.120","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Droughts in Central Asia during 1966\u20132015","volume":"624","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.169","article-title":"Present and Future Water Scarcity in Switzerland: Potential for Alleviation through Reservoirs and Lakes","volume":"666","author":"Brunner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10780","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01604","article-title":"Automatic High Frequency Monitoring for Improved Lake and Reservoir Management","volume":"50","author":"George","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/17\/6684\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:23:06Z","timestamp":1760142186000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/17\/6684"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,4]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s22176684"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22176684","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,4]]}}}