{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T23:11:45Z","timestamp":1777072305066,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]],"date-time":"2022-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663200000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PNREST Anses","award":["2020\/2 RF\/05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/2 RF\/05"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study addressed an important but not yet thoroughly investigated topic regarding human exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) generated by vehicular connectivity. In particular, the study assessed, by means of computational dosimetry, the RF-EMF exposure in road users near a car equipped with vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication antennas. The exposure scenario consisted of a 3D numerical model of a car with two V2V antennas, each fed with 1 W, operating at 5.9 GHz and an adult human model to simulate the road user near the car. The RF-EMF dose absorbed by the human model was calculated as the specific absorption rate (SAR), that is, the RF-EMF power absorbed per unit of mass. The highest SAR was observed in the skin of the head (34.7 mW\/kg) and in the eyes (15 mW\/kg); the SAR at the torso (including the genitals) and limbs was negligible or much lower than in the head and eyes. The SAR over the whole body was 0.19 mW\/kg. The SAR was always well below the limits of human exposure in the 100 kHz\u20136 GHz band established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The proposed approach can be generalized to assess RF-EMF exposure in different conditions by varying the montage\/number of V2V antennas and considering human models of different ages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22186986","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,16]],"date-time":"2022-09-16T01:35:10Z","timestamp":1663292110000},"page":"6986","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Road User Exposure from ITS-5.9 GHz Vehicular Connectivity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0071-8229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Benini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9008-7530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Parazzini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5941-297X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Bonato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Gallucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2503-4779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Chiaramello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6568-8841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serena","family":"Fiocchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2433-449X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriella","family":"Tognola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 20133 Milano, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"IEEE Standard for Information Technology (2010). Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2014Specific Requirements, Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications Amendment 6: Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments, IEEE Computer Society. IEEE Standard 802.11p."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2016). 3GPP TR 36.885 V14.0.0, 3GPP Support Office. Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; Study on LTE-Based V2X services; (Release 14)."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021). 3GPP TR 38.886 V16.3.0, 3GPP Support Office. Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; V2X Services Based on NR; User Equipment (UE) Radio Transmission and Reception; (Release 16)."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2021). 3GPP TS 36.101 Version 14.20.0, 3GPP Support Office. LTE\u2014Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA); User Equipment (UE) Radio Transmission and Reception (Release 14), ETSI TS 136 101 V14.20.0."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2021). 3GPP TR 38.785 V0.5.0, 3GPP Support Office. Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; NR Sidelink Enhancement; User Equipment (UE) Radio Transmission and Reception; (Release 17)."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jadhav, A., and Sonpimple, A. (2018). Connected car market by technology (2G, 3G, and 4G\/LTE), connectivity solutions (integrated, embedded, and tethered), service (driver assistance, safety, entertainment, well-being, vehicle management, and mobility management), and end market (OEM and aftermarket): Global opportunity analysis and industry forecast. Allied Mark. Res., Available online: https:\/\/www.premiummarketinsights.com\/reports-amr\/connected-car-market."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bazzi, A., Cecchini, G., Menarini, M., Masini, B.M., and Zanella, A. (2019). Survey and perspectives of vehicular Wi-Fi versus sidelink cellular-V2X in the 5G era. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11060122"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2022, July 26). IEEE\/IEC International Standard for Determining the Peak Spatial Average Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the Human Body form Wireless Communications Devices, 30 MHz\u20136 GHz, Part 1: General Requirements for Using the Finite Different Time Domain (FDTD) Method for SAR Calculation. IEEE\/IEC 62704\u20131, 2017. Available online: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/stamp\/stamp.jsp?arnumber=8088404."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2022, July 26). IEEE\/IEC International Standard for Determining the Peak Spatial Average Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the Human Body form Wireless Communications Devices, 30 MHz\u20136 GHz, Part 2: Specific Requirements for Finite Different Time Domain (FDTD) Modelling of Exposure from Vehicle Mounted Antennas. IEEE\/IEC 62704\u20132, 2017. Available online: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/stamp\/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7964816."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-015-0913-y","article-title":"Advances in vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs): Challenges and road-map for future development","volume":"13","author":"Eze","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Comput."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2020.3029723","article-title":"Challenges and solutions for cellular based V2X communications","volume":"23","author":"Gyawali","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20083","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2897219","article-title":"Automotive antenna roof for cooperative connected driving","volume":"7","author":"Artner","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47764","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3170035","article-title":"Exposure to RF Electromagnetic Fields in the Connected Vehicle: Survey of Existing and Forthcoming Scenarios","volume":"10","author":"Tognola","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1017\/S1759078711001000","article-title":"Electromagnetic dosimetry for adult and child models within a car: Multi-exposure scenarios","volume":"3","author":"Harris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Microw. Wirel. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Diao, Y., Sun, W.N., Chan, K.H., Leung, S.W., and Siu, Y.M. (2013, January 20\u201323). SAR evaluation for multiple wireless communication devices inside a vehicle. Proceedings of the 2013 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Theory, Hiroshima, Japan."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"91","article-title":"A Numerical Study on the Interaction Between Different Position of Cellular Headsets and a Human Head","volume":"29","author":"Aminzadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACES J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/JERM.2020.3009856","article-title":"Numerical Assessment of RF Human Exposure in Smart Mobility Communications","volume":"5","author":"Tognola","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electromagn. RF Microw. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruddle, A.R. (2016, January 14\u201315). Preliminary estimates of electromagnetic field exposures due to advanced vehicle technologies. Proceedings of the 2016 Loughborough Antennas & Propagation Conference (LAPC), Loughborough, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/LAPC.2016.7807587"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2022, July 26). Autotalks; Cost-efficient C-V2X Antenna Installation. Available online: https:\/\/auto-talks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Cost-efficient-C-V2X-Antenna-Installation-final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Neira, E.C., Carlberg, U., Carlsson, J., Karlsson, K., and Str\u00f6m, E.G. (2014, January 6\u201311). Evaluation of V2X antenna performance using a multipath simulation tool. Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP 2014), Hague, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Thomas, A., Swen, K., Steffen, L., and Andreas, W. (2022, July 26). V2X\u2014An Important Building Block in Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS). TE Communication v2x, Available online: https:\/\/www.te.com\/content\/dam\/te-com\/documents\/automotive\/global\/automotive-next-gen-mobility-v2x-09\u20132019-en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Gallo, M., Bruni, S., Pannozzo, M., and Zamberlan, D. (2013, January 8\u201312). Performance evaluation of C2C antennas on car body. Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP2013), Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallo, M., Bruni, S., and Zamberlan, D. (2012, January 26\u201330). Design and measurement of automotive antennas for C2C applications. Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP2012), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/EuCAP.2012.6205985"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2018.2805681","article-title":"A fully integrated shark-fin antenna for MIMO-LTE, GPS, WLAN, and WAVE applications","volume":"17","author":"Kwon","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruddle, A. (2008). Influence of dielectric materials on in-vehicle electromagnetic fields. IET Semin. EM Propag. Build. Large Struct., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1049\/ic.2008.0731"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/41\/11\/002","article-title":"The dielectric properties of biological tissues: II. Measurements in the frequency range 10 Hz to 20 GHz","volume":"41","author":"Gabriel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2022, July 26). ZMT Zurich Med Tech AG, Zurich, Switzerland. Available online: www.zurichmedtech.com."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Harrington, R.F. (1961). Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields, McGraw-Hill College."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1455","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.3017438","article-title":"Active Huygens\u2019 box: Arbitrary electromagnetic wave generation with an electronically controlled metasurface","volume":"69","author":"Wong","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benkler, S., Chavannes, N., and Kuster, N. (2009, January 1\u20135). Novel FDTD Huygens source enables highly complex simulation scenarios on ordinary PCs. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, North Charleston, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APS.2009.5171964"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4739","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/16\/4739","article-title":"Measurement of the dielectric properties of the epidermis and dermis at frequencies from 0.5 GHz to 110 GHz","volume":"59","author":"Sasaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000000571","article-title":"Thermal response of human skin to microwave energy: A critical review","volume":"111","author":"Foster","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000001210","article-title":"ICNIRP guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz to 300 GHz)","volume":"118","author":"Ziegelberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2019). IEEE International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety. IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields, 0 Hz to 300 GHz. Standard No. IEEE Std C95.1\u20132019 (Revision of IEEE Std C95.1\u20132005\/Incorporates IEEE Std C95.1\u20132019\/Cor 1\u20132019)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1109\/JERM.2019.2958549","article-title":"Influence of low frequency near-field sources position on the assessment of children exposure variability using Stochastic Dosimetry","volume":"4","author":"Bonato","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J. Electromagn. RF Microw. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tognola, G., Bonato, M., Chiaramello, E., Fiocchi, S., Magne, I., Souques, M., Parazzini, M., and Ravazzani, P. (2019). Use of machine learning in the analysis of indoor ELF MF exposure in children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16071230"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/18\/6986\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:32:01Z","timestamp":1760142721000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/18\/6986"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s22186986"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22186986","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,15]]}}}