{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:12:11Z","timestamp":1760231531161,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]],"date-time":"2022-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT)","award":["Catedras-2016\/972"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Catedras-2016\/972"]}]},{"name":"Tecnologico de Monterrey, Vicerrectory of Research and Technology Transfer","award":["Catedras-2016\/972"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Catedras-2016\/972"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is a challenging task to track objects moving along an unknown trajectory. Conventional model-based controllers require detailed knowledge of a robot\u2019s kinematics and the target\u2019s trajectory. Tracking precision heavily relies on kinematics to infer the trajectory. Control implementation in parallel robots is especially difficult due to their complex kinematics. Vision-based controllers are robust to uncertainties of a robot\u2019s kinematic model since they can correct end-point trajectories as error estimates become available. Robustness is guaranteed by taking the vision sensor\u2019s model into account when designing the control law. All camera space manipulation (CSM) models in the literature are position-based, where the mapping between the end effector position in the Cartesian space and sensor space is established. Such models are not appropriate for tracking moving targets because the relationship between the target and the end effector is a fixed point. The present work builds upon the literature by presenting a novel CSM velocity-based control that establishes a relationship between a movable trajectory and the end effector position. Its efficacy is shown on a Delta-type parallel robot. Three types of experiments were performed: (a) static tracking (average error of 1.09 mm); (b) constant speed linear trajectory tracking\u2014speeds of 7, 9.5, and 12 cm\/s\u2014(tracking errors of 8.89, 11.76, and 18.65 mm, respectively); (c) freehand trajectory tracking (max tracking errors of 11.79 mm during motion and max static positioning errors of 1.44 mm once the object stopped). The resulting control cycle time was 48 ms. The results obtained show a reduction in the tracking errors for this robot with respect to previously published control strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,28]],"date-time":"2022-09-28T03:30:37Z","timestamp":1664335837000},"page":"7323","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A Novel Velocity-Based Control in a Sensor Space for Parallel Manipulators"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Antonio","family":"Loredo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de San Luis Potos\u00ed, San Luis Potosi 78290, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4548-8666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Maya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de San Luis Potos\u00ed, San Luis Potosi 78290, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6803-9719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingenieria y Ciencias, Queretaro 76130, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4208-0566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Cardenas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de San Luis Potos\u00ed, San Luis Potosi 78290, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5682-0070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilio","family":"Gonzalez-Galvan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de San Luis Potos\u00ed, San Luis Potosi 78290, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9258-8985","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide","family":"Piovesan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Engineering, Gannon University, Erie, PA 16541, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Merlet, J.P. (2006). Parallel Robots, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"77","article-title":"Several open problems in parallel robotics","volume":"4","author":"Pandilov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Tech. Corviniensis-Bull. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, L.W., Chiang, H.H., and Li, I.H. (2019). Development and Control of a Pneumatic-Actuator 3-DOF Translational Parallel Manipulator with Robot Vision. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19061459"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2018.2792450","article-title":"A review of research aspects of redundantly actuated parallel robotsw for enabling further applications","volume":"23","author":"Mostashiri","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1109\/70.928560","article-title":"A closed-form solution to the direct kinematics of nearly general parallel manipulators with optimally located three linear extra sensors","volume":"17","author":"Bonev","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.15632\/jtam-pl\/115863","article-title":"On the improvement of calibration accuracy of parallel robots\u2014Modeling and optimization","volume":"58","author":"Bentaleb","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Theor. Appl. Mech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9990403","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9990403","article-title":"Dynamic Hybrid Filter for Vision-Based Pose Estimation of a Hexa Parallel Robot","volume":"2021","author":"Huynh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"11","article-title":"Design of Augmented Nonlinear PD Controller of Delta\/Par4-Like Robot","volume":"2019","author":"Amjad","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Control Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cherubini, A., and Navarro-Alarcon, D. (2021). Sensor-based control for collaborative robots: Fundamentals, challenges, and opportunities. Front. Neurorobot., 113.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2020.576846"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-010-9476-x","article-title":"A dynamic-compensation approach to impedance control of robot manipulators","volume":"63","author":"Bonilla","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2006.250573","article-title":"Visual servo control. I. Basic approaches","volume":"13","author":"Chaumette","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1109\/JRA.1987.1087115","article-title":"Dynamic sensor-based control of robots with visual feedback","volume":"3","author":"Weiss","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE J. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C.J., Shaw, J., Tsou, P.C., and Liu, C.C. (2016, January 14\u201317). Vision servo based Delta robot to pick-and-place moving parts. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT.2016.7475005"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2021.04.200","article-title":"Uncalibrated Image-Based Visual Servoing Control with Maximum Correntropy Kalman Filter","volume":"53","author":"Xiaolin","year":"2020","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-018-0178-7","article-title":"Stability Analysis of a Visual PID Controller Applied to a Planar Parallel Robot","volume":"17","author":"Garrido","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1177\/027836498700600402","article-title":"Camera-space manipulation","volume":"6","author":"Skaar","year":"1987","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-5845(03)00048-6","article-title":"An efficient multi-camera, multi-target scheme for the three-dimensional control of robots using uncalibrated vision","volume":"19","author":"Seelinger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1729881419842987","article-title":"Estimation of camera-space manipulation parameters by means of an extended Kalman filter: Applications to parallel robots","volume":"16","author":"Maya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2010.2050518","article-title":"Robot positioning using camera-space manipulation with a linear camera model","volume":"26","author":"Lara","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-016-0413-5","article-title":"Vision-based Control of a Delta Parallel Robot via Linear Camera-Space Manipulation","volume":"85","author":"Coronado","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Huynh, P., Arai, T., Koyachi, N., and Sendai, T. (1997, January 11). Optimal velocity based control of a parallel manipulator with fixed linear actuators. Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robot and Systems. Innovative Robotics for Real-World Applications. IROS\u201997, Grenoble, France."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Camera Space Particle Filter for the Robust and Precise Indoor Localization of a Wheelchair","volume":"2016","author":"Cardenas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"559","article-title":"Image-based control of Delta parallel robots via enhanced LCM-CSM to track moving objects","volume":"47","author":"Maya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ind. Robot. Int. J. Robot. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zelenak, A., Peterson, C., Thompson, J., and Pryor, M. (2015, January 28\u201330). The advantages of velocity control for reactive robot motion. Proceedings of the ASME 2015 Dynamic Systems and Control Conference, DSCC 2015, Columbus, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/DSCC2015-9713"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duchaine, V., and Gosselin, C.M. (2007, January 22\u201324). General Model of Human-Robot Cooperation Using a Novel Velocity Based Variable Impedance Control. Proceedings of the Second Joint EuroHaptics Conference and Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems (WHC\u201907), Tsukuba, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/WHC.2007.59"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Wang, W., Zhao, C., Skaar, S.B., and Wang, Q. (2020, January 27\u201329). A Differential Evolution Approach for Camera Space Manipulation. Proceedings of the 2020 2nd World Symposium on Artificial Intelligence (WSAI), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WSAI49636.2020.9143312"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wang, Y., and Liu, Y. (2018, January 1\u20135). Catching Object in Flight Based on Trajectory Prediction on Camera Space. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Real-Time Computing and Robotics (RCAR), Kandima, Maldives.","DOI":"10.1109\/RCAR.2018.8621793"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, T., and Liu, Y. (2018, January 1\u20135). Trajectory Prediction of a Flying Object Based on Hybrid Mapping Between Robot and Camera Space. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Real-Time Computing and Robotics (RCAR), Kandima, Maldives.","DOI":"10.1109\/RCAR.2018.8621680"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sekkat, H., Tigani, S., Saadane, R., and Chehri, A. (2021). Vision-Based Robotic Arm Control Algorithm Using Deep Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Objects Grasping. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11177917"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729881421990320","DOI":"10.1177\/1729881421990320","article-title":"Visual servoing of robot manipulator with weak field-of-view constraints","volume":"18","author":"Xin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mok, C., Baek, I., Cho, Y.S., Kim, Y., and Kim, S.B. (2021). Pallet Recognition with Multi-Task Learning for Automated Guided Vehicles. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app112411808"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050020","DOI":"10.1080\/23311916.2022.2050020","article-title":"A survey on vision guided robotic systems with intelligent control strategies for autonomous tasks","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogent Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Burckhardt, C.W. (1988, January 26\u201328). DELTA, a fast robot with parallel geometry. Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Lusanne, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.5772\/61942","article-title":"A Novel Reconfiguration Strategy of a Delta-Type Parallel Manipulator","volume":"13","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.5772\/54670","article-title":"Workspace and payload-capacity of a new reconfigurable Delta parallel robot","volume":"10","author":"Maya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1243\/095440606X78263","article-title":"Delta robot: Inverse, direct, and intermediate Jacobians","volume":"220","author":"Castillo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartley, R., and Zisserman, A. (2003). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511811685"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1108\/IR-04-2013-340","article-title":"Robust industrial robot real-time positioning system using VW-camera-space manipulation method","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ind. Robot. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Galassi, M., and Theiler, J. (2017, June 01). GNU Scientific Library. Available online: https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/gsl\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Bradski, G., and The OpenCV Library (2016, July 01). Dr. Dobb\u2019s Journal of Software Tools. Available online: http:\/\/opencv.org\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S., Suh, I.H., and Kim, M.S. (2008). Vision-Based Control of the RoboTenis System. Recent Progress in Robotics: Viable Robotic Service to Human: An Edition of the Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference on Advanced Robotics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-76729-9"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2012.2218235","article-title":"Path-tracking maneuvers with industrial robot manipulators using uncalibrated vision and impedance control","volume":"42","author":"Bonilla","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C Appl. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00d6zg\u00fcr, E., Dahmouche, R., Andreff, N., and Martinet, P. (2013, January 3\u20137). High speed parallel kinematic manipulator state estimation from legs observation. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2013.6696386"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Peng, R., Wang, Z., and Zhao, W. (2012, January 21\u201323). Pallet recognition and localization method for vision guided forklift. Proceedings of the 2012 8th International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiCOM.2012.6478603"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.5772\/63941","article-title":"Optimal Design and Tuning of PID-Type Interval Type-2 Fuzzy Logic Controllers for Delta Parallel Robots","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/19\/7323\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:40:16Z","timestamp":1760143216000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/19\/7323"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s22197323"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22197323","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]}}}