{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T18:51:55Z","timestamp":1770749515341,"version":"3.50.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]],"date-time":"2022-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665446400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008034","name":"ATHOS Research Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OB.FU. 0867.010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OB.FU. 0867.010"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008034","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008034","name":"ATHOS Research Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Delibera n. 144\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Delibera n. 144\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008034","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Project FIRST-\u2013ForecastIng eRuptive activity at Stromboli volcano: timing, eruptive style, size, intensity, and duration, INGV-\u2013Progetto Strategico Dipartimento Vulcani 2019","award":["OB.FU. 0867.010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OB.FU. 0867.010"]}]},{"name":"Project FIRST-\u2013ForecastIng eRuptive activity at Stromboli volcano: timing, eruptive style, size, intensity, and duration, INGV-\u2013Progetto Strategico Dipartimento Vulcani 2019","award":["Delibera n. 144\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Delibera n. 144\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Volcanic explosive eruptions inject several different types of particles and gasses into the atmosphere, giving rise to the formation and propagation of volcanic clouds. These can pose a serious threat to the health of people living near an active volcano and cause damage to air traffic. Many efforts have been devoted to monitor and characterize volcanic clouds. Satellite infrared (IR) sensors have been shown to be well suitable for volcanic cloud monitoring tasks. Here, a machine learning (ML) approach was developed in Google Earth Engine (GEE) to detect a volcanic cloud and to classify its main components using satellite infrared images. We implemented a supervised support vector machine (SVM) algorithm to segment a combination of thermal infrared (TIR) bands acquired by the geostationary MSG-SEVIRI (Meteosat Second Generation\u2014Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager). This ML algorithm was applied to some of the paroxysmal explosive events that occurred at Mt. Etna between 2020 and 2022. We found that the ML approach using a combination of TIR bands from the geostationary satellite is very efficient, achieving an accuracy of 0.86, being able to properly detect, track and map automatically volcanic ash clouds in near real-time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207712","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T02:10:27Z","timestamp":1665540627000},"page":"7712","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Characterization of Volcanic Cloud Components Using Machine Learning Techniques and SEVIRI Infrared Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7066-6508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Torrisi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4244-3972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Amato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, 95125 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Palermo, 90123 Palermo, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3054-6840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Corradino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, 95125 Catania, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2744-0578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Mangiagli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, 95125 Catania, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5734-9025","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ciro","family":"Del Negro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Osservatorio Etneo, 95125 Catania, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.2113\/gselements.6.4.235","article-title":"Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts of Volcanic Particulates","volume":"6","author":"Durant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Elements"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6871","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-6871-2011","article-title":"Sulphur Dioxide as a Volcanic Ash Proxy during the April\u2013May 2010 Eruption of Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull Volcano, Iceland","volume":"11","author":"Thomas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"4011","article-title":"Atmosphere and Environmental Effects of the 1783-1784 Laki Eruption: A Review and Reassessment","volume":"108","author":"Thordarson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2010.09.064","article-title":"Assessing in near Real Time the Impact of the April 2010 Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull Ash Plume on Air Quality","volume":"45","author":"Colette","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/0377-0273(94)90038-8","article-title":"The 1989\u20131990 Eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: Impacts on Aircraft Operations","volume":"62","author":"Casadevall","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00445-006-0052-y","article-title":"The Respiratory Health Hazards of Volcanic Ash: A Review for Volcanic Risk Mitigation","volume":"69","author":"Horwell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Volcanol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Osiensky, J., and Hall, T. (2008). Detection and Tracking of Volcanic Ash and SO2 and Its Impact to Aviation. AGU Fall Meeting Abstract, American Geophysical Union."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1038\/373399a0","article-title":"Atmospheric Effects of the Mt Pinatubo Eruption","volume":"373","author":"McCormick","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1029\/1998RG000054","article-title":"Volcanic Eruptions and Climate","volume":"38","author":"Robock","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7307","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1015053108","article-title":"Characterization of Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull Volcanic Ash Particles and a Protocol for Rapid Risk Assessment","volume":"108","author":"Gislason","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins, S.F., Wilson, T.M., Magill, C.R., Miller, V., Stewart, C., Marzocchi, W., and Boulton, M. (2014). Volcanic Ash Fall Hazard and Risk: Technical Background Paper for the UN-ISDR 2015 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316276273.005"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loughlin, S.C., Sparks, R.S.J., Sparks, S., Brown, S.K., Jenkins, S.F., and Vye-Brown, C. (2015). Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316276273"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"U.S. Government (1994). Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"National Geographic Society (2022, September 20). Human and Environmental Impacts of Volcanic Ash. Available online: https:\/\/education.nationalgeographic.org\/resource\/human-environmental-impact-volcanic-ash."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Health Hazards of Volcanoes and Geothermal Areas (2022, July 20). Occupational & Environmental Medicine. Available online: https:\/\/oem.bmj.com\/content\/63\/2\/149.short.","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2005.022459"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2000.0605","article-title":"Integrating Retrievals of Volcanic Cloud Characteristics from Satellite Remote Sensors: A Summary","volume":"358","author":"Rose","year":"2000","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2003.12.017","article-title":"Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing of Volcanic Emissions Using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer","volume":"135","author":"Watson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradini, S., Montopoli, M., Guerrieri, L., Ricci, M., Scollo, S., Merucci, L., Marzano, F., Pugnaghi, S., Prestifilippo, M., and Ventress, L. (2016). A Multi-Sensor Approach for Volcanic Ash Cloud Retrieval and Eruption Characterization: The 23 November 2013 Etna Lava Fountain. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8010058"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-359-2014","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Volcanic Ash Plumes from Thermal Infrared: A Case Study Analysis from SEVIRI, MODIS and IASI Instruments","volume":"7","author":"Dubuisson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prata, F., and Lynch, M. (2019). Passive Earth Observations of Volcanic Clouds in the Atmosphere. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10040199"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"721","article-title":"Analysing the Advantages of High Temporal Resolution Geostationary MSG SEVIRI Data Compared to Polar Operational Environmental Satellite Data for Land Surface Monitoring in Africa","volume":"13","author":"Fensholt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"335","article-title":"Study on Analyses of Volcanic Eruptions Based on Eruption Cloud Image Data Obtained by the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite(GMS)","volume":"22","author":"Sawada","year":"1987","journal-title":"Tech. Rep. Meteorol. Res. Inst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1029\/GL016i011p01293","article-title":"Infrared Radiative Transfer Calculations for Volcanic Ash Clouds","volume":"16","author":"Prata","year":"1989","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168908903916","article-title":"Observations of Volcanic Ash Clouds in the 10\u201312 \u03bcm Window Using AVHRR\/2 Data","volume":"10","author":"Prata","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Prata, A.T. (2017). Active and Passive Satellite Remote Sensing of Volcanic Clouds. [Ph.D. Thesis, Monash University]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JD000706","article-title":"Atmospheric Correction for Satellite-Based Volcanic Ash Mapping and Retrievals Using \u201cSplit Window\u201d IR Data from GOES and AVHRR","volume":"107","author":"Yu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(99)00103-0","article-title":"Failures in Detecting Volcanic Ash from a Satellite-Based Technique","volume":"72","author":"Simpson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, September 19). Comments on \u201cFailures in Detecting Volcanic Ash from a Satellite-Based Technique\u201d\u2014ScienceDirect. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0034425701002310."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D12","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002802","article-title":"Improved Detection of Airborne Volcanic Ash Using Multispectral Infrared Satellite Data","volume":"108","author":"Ellrod","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.014","article-title":"Improving Volcanic Ash Cloud Detection by a Robust Satellite Technique","volume":"90","author":"Pergola","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL020395","article-title":"Volcanic Ash Detection and Cloud Top Height Estimates from the GOES-12 Imager: Coping without a 12 \u039cm Infrared Band","volume":"31","author":"Ellrod","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D20","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD016788","article-title":"Retrieval of Physical Properties of Volcanic Ash Using Meteosat: A Case Study from the 2010 Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull Eruption","volume":"117","author":"Francis","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50173","article-title":"Automated Retrievals of Volcanic Ash and Dust Cloud Properties from Upwelling Infrared Measurements","volume":"118","author":"Pavolonis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D20","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL028691","article-title":"Simultaneous Retrieval of Volcanic Ash and SO2 Using MSG-SEVIRI Measurements","volume":"34","author":"Prata","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D2","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD013634","article-title":"Volcanic Ash and SO2 in the 2008 Kasatochi Eruption: Retrievals Comparison from Different IR Satellite Sensors","volume":"115","author":"Corradini","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5421","DOI":"10.1029\/93JD03340","article-title":"Retrieval of Sizes and Total Masses of Particles in Volcanic Clouds Using AVHRR Bands 4 and 5","volume":"99","author":"Wen","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2016.07.001","article-title":"Plume Tracker: Interactive Mapping of Volcanic Sulfur Dioxide Emissions with High-Performance Radiative Transfer Modeling","volume":"327","author":"Realmuto","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Berk, A., Bernstein, L., and Robertson, D. (1987). MODTRAN: A Moderate Resolution Model for LOWTRAN, Spectral Sciences Inc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradini, S., Guerrieri, L., Stelitano, D., Salerno, G., Scollo, S., Merucci, L., Prestifilippo, M., Musacchio, M., Silvestri, M., and Lombardo, V. (2020). Near Real-Time Monitoring of the Christmas 2018 Etna Eruption Using SEVIRI and Products Validation. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12081336"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2-177-2009","article-title":"Retrieval of SO2 from Thermal Infrared Satellite Measurements: Correction Procedures for the Effects of Volcanic Ash","volume":"2","author":"Corradini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Prata, A.J., and Grant, I.F. (2001). Determination of Mass Loadings and Plume Heights of Volcanic Ash Clouds from Satellite Data, CSIRO Atmospheric Research."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"023550","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3046674","article-title":"Mt. Etna Tropospheric Ash Retrieval and Sensitivity Analysis Using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Measurements","volume":"2","author":"Corradini","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradino, C., Ganci, G., Cappello, A., Bilotta, G., H\u00e9rault, A., and Del Negro, C. (2019). Mapping Recent Lava Flows at Mount Etna Using Multispectral Sentinel-2 Images and Machine Learning Techniques. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161916"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradino, C., Amato, E., Torrisi, F., Calvari, S., and Del Negro, C. (2021). Classifying Major Explosions and Paroxysms at Stromboli Volcano (Italy) from Space. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13204080"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amato, E., Corradino, C., Torrisi, F., and Del Negro, C. (2021). Combined Use of Satellite Data and Machine Learning for Detecting, Measuring, and Monitoring Active Lava Flows at Etna Volcano. Earth Space Sci. Open Arch., 1.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10509929.1"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del Negro, C., Amato, E., Torrisi, F., Corradino, C., Bucolo, M., and Fortuna, L. (2022, January 14\u201316). Support Vector Machine for Volcano Hazard Monitoring from Space at Mount Etna. Proceedings of the IEEE MELECON, Palermo, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MELECON53508.2022.9842942"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022). Torrisi, Federica Automatic Detection of Volcanic Ash Clouds Using MSG-SEVIRI Satellite Data and Machine Learning Techniques. Il Nuovo Cim. C, 45, 1\u201310."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031","article-title":"Google Earth Engine: Planetary-Scale Geospatial Analysis for Everyone","volume":"202","author":"Gorelick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"102369","article-title":"Ten Years of Volcanic Activity at Mt Etna: High-Resolution Mapping and Accurate Quantification of the Morphological Changes by Pleiades and Lidar Data","volume":"102","author":"Bisson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2013.11.012","article-title":"The 2011\u20132012 Summit Activity of Mount Etna: Birth, Growth and Products of the New SE Crater","volume":"270","author":"Behncke","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2018.04.012","article-title":"Pyroclastic Density Currents at Etna Volcano, Italy: The 11 February 2014 Case Study","volume":"357","author":"Andronico","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2018.00116","article-title":"Magma Budget From Lava and Tephra Volumes Erupted During the 25-26 October 2013 Lava Fountain at Mt Etna","volume":"6","author":"Andronico","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvari, S., Bonaccorso, A., and Ganci, G. (2021). Anatomy of a Paroxysmal Lava Fountain at Etna Volcano: The Case of the 12 March 2021, Episode. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13153052"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marchese, F., Filizzola, C., Lacava, T., Falconieri, A., Faruolo, M., Genzano, N., Mazzeo, G., Pietrapertosa, C., Pergola, N., and Tramutoli, V. (2021). Mt. Etna Paroxysms of February\u2013April 2021 Monitored and Quantified through a Multi-Platform Satellite Observing System. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13163074"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calvari, S., and Nunnari, G. (2022). Comparison between Automated and Manual Detection of Lava Fountains from Fixed Monitoring Thermal Cameras at Etna Volcano, Italy. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102392"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2022). Amato, Eleonora Machine Learning and Best Fit Approach to Map Lava Flows from Space. Il Nuovo Cim. C, 45, 1\u201312."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"19","article-title":"Characteristics of the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) Radiometer\/Imager: SEVIRI","volume":"3221","author":"Aminou","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Sens. Syst. Next Gener. Satell."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1477","article-title":"MSG\u2019s SEVIRI Instrument","volume":"111","author":"Aminou","year":"2002","journal-title":"ESA Bull."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1996.10484565","article-title":"The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory","volume":"38","author":"Sain","year":"1996","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/10408340600969486","article-title":"Support Vector Machines: A Recent Method for Classification in Chemometrics","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carugo, O., and Eisenhaber, F. (2010). A User\u2019s Guide to Support Vector Machines. Data Mining Techniques for the Life Sciences, Humana Press. Methods in Molecular Biology.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-241-4"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2627","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(97)00447-0","article-title":"Artificial Neural Networks (the Multilayer Perceptron)\u2014A Review of Applications in the Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"32","author":"Gardner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-4-2619-2011","article-title":"Volcanic Ash Detection and Retrievals Using MODIS Data by Means of Neural Networks","volume":"4","author":"Picchiani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2163198","article-title":"Tropospheric Ozone Column Retrieval From ESA-Envisat SCIAMACHY Nadir UV\/VIS Radiance Measurements by Means of a Neural Network Algorithm","volume":"50","author":"Sellitto","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-6-895-2013","article-title":"Global Tropospheric Ozone Column Retrievals from OMI Data by Means of Neural Networks","volume":"6","author":"Sellitto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Picchiani, M., Chini, M., Corradini, S., Merucci, L., Piscini, A., and Frate, F.D. (2014). Neural Network Multispectral Satellite Images Classification of Volcanic Ash Plumes in a Cloudy Scenario. Ann. Geophys., 57.","DOI":"10.4401\/ag-6638"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4023","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-4023-2014","article-title":"A Neural Network Approach for the Simultaneous Retrieval of Volcanic Ash Parameters and SO2 Using MODIS Data","volume":"7","author":"Piscini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"EUMETSAT (2022, September 20). MSG Level 1.5 Image Data Format Description. Available online: https:\/\/www-cdn.eumetsat.int\/files\/2020-05\/pdf_ten_05105_msg_img_data.pdf."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2022, October 10). SEVIRI Ash RGB Quick Guide. Available online: www-cdn.eumetsat.int\/files\/2020-04\/pdf_rgb_quick_guide_ash.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torrisi, F., Folzani, F., Corradino, C., Amato, E., and Negro, C.D. (2022). Detecting Volcanic Ash Plume Components from Space Using Machine Learning Techniques. Earth Space Sci. Open Arch., 1.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10509947.1"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradino, C., Bilotta, G., Cappello, A., Fortuna, L., and Del Negro, C. (2021). Combining Radar and Optical Satellite Imagery with Machine Learning to Map Lava Flows at Mount Etna and Fogo Island. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14010197"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amato, E., Corradino, C., Torrisi, F., and Del Negro, C. (2021, January 7\u20138). Mapping Lava Flows at Etna Volcano Using Google Earth Engine, Open-Access Satellite Data, and Machine Learning. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Electrical, Computer, Communications and Mechatronics Engineering (ICECCME), Mauritius, Mauritius.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECCME52200.2021.9591110"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvolgeores.2014.12.016","article-title":"Evolution of the 2011 Mt. Etna Ash and SO2 Lava Fountain Episodes Using SEVIRI Data and VPR Retrieval Approach","volume":"291","author":"Guerrieri","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-6-1315-2013","article-title":"A New Simplified Approach for Simultaneous Retrieval of SO2 and Ash Content of Tropospheric Volcanic Clouds: An Application to the Mt Etna Volcano","volume":"6","author":"Pugnaghi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3053","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-3053-2016","article-title":"Real Time Retrieval of Volcanic Cloud Particles and SO2 by Satellite Using an Improved Simplified Approach","volume":"9","author":"Pugnaghi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5089","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-5089-2015","article-title":"Automatic Volcanic Ash Detection from MODIS Observations Using a Back-Propagation Neural Network","volume":"8","author":"Gray","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piontek, D., Bugliaro, L., Kar, J., Schumann, U., Marenco, F., Plu, M., and Voigt, C. (2021). The New Volcanic Ash Satellite Retrieval VACOS Using MSG\/SEVIRI and Artificial Neural Networks: 2. Validation. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13163128"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradino, C., Amato, E., Torrisi, F., and Negro, C.D. (October, January 30). Towards an Automatic Generalized Machine Learning Approach to Map Lava Flows. Proceedings of the 2021 17th International Workshop on Cellular Nanoscale Networks and their Applications (CNNA), Catania, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/CNNA49188.2021.9610813"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mira, J., and S\u00e1nchez-Andr\u00e9s, J.V. (1999). Support Vector Machines for Multi-Class Classification. Proceedings of the Engineering Applications of Bio-Inspired Artificial Neural Networks, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0100465"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Grandini, M., Bagli, E., and Visani, G. (2020). Metrics for Multi-Class Classification: An Overview. arXiv, Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/2008.05756.pdf."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Powers, D.M.W. (2020). Evaluation: From Precision, Recall and F-Measure to ROC, Informedness, Markedness and Correlation. arXiv, Available online: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/ftp\/arxiv\/papers\/2010\/2010.16061.pdf."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aci.2018.08.003","article-title":"Classification Assessment Methods","volume":"17","author":"Tharwat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Comput. Inform."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradino, C., Amato, E., Torrisi, F., and Del Negro, C. (2022). Data-Driven Random Forest Models for Detecting Volcanic Hot Spots in Sentinel-2 MSI Images. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14174370"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/20\/7712\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:49:56Z","timestamp":1760143796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/20\/7712"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s22207712"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22207712","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]}}}