{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T04:28:17Z","timestamp":1781584097417,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665532800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota 599 Kinabalu, Malaysia","award":["UMS No. DFK2005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UMS No. DFK2005"]}]},{"name":"\u201cSmart Vertical farming Technology for Temperate vegetable cultivation in Sabah: practicing smart automation system using IR and AI technology in agriculture 4.0\u201d","award":["UMS No. DFK2005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UMS No. DFK2005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) has received significant interest from researchers for several applications. In spite of developing and proposing numerous routing protocols for MANET, there are still routing protocols that are too inefficient in terms of sending data and energy consumption, which limits the lifetime of the network for forest fire monitoring. Therefore, this paper presents the development of a Location Aided Routing (LAR) protocol in forest fire detection. The new routing protocol is named the LAR-Based Reliable Routing Protocol (LARRR), which is used to detect a forest fire based on three criteria: the route length between nodes, the temperature sensing, and the number of packets within node buffers (i.e., route busyness). The performance of the LARRR protocol is evaluated by using widely known evaluation measurements, which are the Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), Energy Consumption (EC), End-to-End Delay (E2E Delay), and Routing Overhead (RO). The simulation results show that the proposed LARRR protocol achieves 70% PDR, 403 joules of EC, 2.733 s of E2E delay, and 43.04 RO. In addition, the performance of the proposed LARRR protocol outperforms its competitors and is able to detect forest fires efficiently.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207745","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T22:45:29Z","timestamp":1665614729000},"page":"7745","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Forest Fire Detection Using New Routing Protocol"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Fahad Taha","family":"AL-Dhief","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8999-9548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ravie Chandren","family":"Muniyandi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Software Technology and Management, University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM Bangi), Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naseer","family":"Sabri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Technical Engineering, Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad 14132, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1008-3028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mosab","family":"Hamdan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0417-3617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nurul Mu\u2019azzah Abdul","family":"Latiff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Musatafa Abbas Abbood","family":"Albadr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CAIT, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5904-7642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mutaz Hamed Hussien","family":"Khairi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9362-7771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muzaffar","family":"Hamzah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suleman","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2443","article-title":"Improved Routing in MANET with Optimized Multi path routing fine tuned with Hybrid modeling","volume":"34","author":"Farheen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"105","article-title":"Mobility and load aware routing protocol for ad hoc networks","volume":"23","author":"Khamayseh","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, M., Singh, M., Walia, K., and Kaur, K. (2019, January 17\u201319). Comprehensive Study of Routing Protocols in Adhoc Network: MANET. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 10th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMCON.2019.8936135"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AL-Dhief, F.T., Sabri, N., Salim, M., Fouad, S., and Aljunid, S. (2018, January 11\u201312). MANET routing protocols evaluation: AODV, DSR and DSDV perspective. Proceedings of the MATEC Web of Conferences, Solo Baru, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201815006024"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"11394","article-title":"NS2 simulator to evaluate the effective of nodes number and simulation time on the reactive routing protocols in MANET","volume":"11","author":"Jubair","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"137","article-title":"Optimized authentication for wireless body area network","volume":"10","author":"Ahmad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Telecommun. Electron. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alameri, I.A., and Komarkova, J. (2020, January 24\u201327). A Multi-Parameter Comparative Study of MANET Routing Protocols. Proceedings of the 2020 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Sevilla, Spain.","DOI":"10.23919\/CISTI49556.2020.9141119"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"140","article-title":"Review study on MANET Routing Protocols: Challenges and Applications","volume":"8","author":"Kaur","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.36478\/jeasci.2019.802.811","article-title":"Mobile Ad Hoc Networks and Routing Protocols in IoT Enabled","volume":"14","author":"Devi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Eng. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"24","article-title":"A Review over MANET-Issues and Challenges","volume":"2","author":"Goyal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Enh. Res. Man. Comp. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Mohamed, H.E.-D., Azmi, H., and Taha, S. (2021). Using MANET in IoT Healthcare Applications: A Survey. Int. J. Comput. Digit. Syst., Available online: https:\/\/journal.uob.edu.bh\/handle\/123456789\/4355."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Setijadi, E., Purnama, I.K.E., and Pumomo, M.H. (2018, January 17\u201319). Performance comparative of aodv, aomdv and dsdv routing protocols in manet using ns2. Proceedings of the 2018 International Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and Communication, Almaty, Kazakhstan."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Performance evaluation of LAR and OLSR routing protocols in forest fire detection using mobile ad-hoc network","volume":"9","author":"Muniyandi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"2319","article-title":"Detection and mitigation techniques of black hole attack in MANET: An Overview","volume":"2","author":"Jain","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. (IJSR)"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jang, H.-C., Lien, Y.-N., and Tsai, T.-C. (2009, January 21\u201324). Rescue information system for earthquake disasters based on MANET emergency communication platform. Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing: Connecting the World Wirelessly, Leipzig, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/1582379.1582514"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"135","article-title":"A review of forest fire surveillance technologies: Mobile ad-hoc network routing protocols perspective","volume":"31","author":"Sabri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.10.022","article-title":"Global wildland fire season severity in the 21st century","volume":"294","author":"Flannigan","year":"2013","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597368","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/597368","article-title":"A review on forest fire detection techniques","volume":"10","author":"Alkhatib","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"5587","article-title":"Forest 4.0: Digitalization of forest using the Internet of Things (IoT)","volume":"34","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"432","article-title":"Review on manet: Characteristics, challenges, imperatives and routing protocols","volume":"3","author":"Chitkara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1504\/IJSCC.2017.083991","article-title":"A survey on the fundamental and advanced mobile ad hoc network routing protocols","volume":"8","author":"Ilyas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Control. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenning, B.-L., Pesch, D., Timm-Giel, A., and G\u00f6rg, C. (2008). Environmental monitoring aware routing in wireless sensor networks. Wireless and Mobile Networking, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-84839-6_1"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamil, A., Parish, D.J., Phan, R.C.-W., Phillips, I., Whitley, J., and Oikonomou, G. (2012, January 13\u201314). Maximise unsafe path routing protocol for forest fire monitoring system using wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Networked Embedded Systems for Every Application (NESEA), Liverpool, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/NESEA.2012.6474018"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keshtgary, M., and Rikhtegar, N. (2013, January 22\u201324). Performance evaluation of routing protocols for wireless sensor networks in forest fire detection application. Proceedings of the 2013 5th Conference on Information and Knowledge Technology (IKT), Shiraz, Iran.","DOI":"10.1109\/IKT.2013.6620073"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11235-009-9191-8","article-title":"Environmental monitoring aware routing: Making environmental sensor networks more robust","volume":"43","author":"Wenning","year":"2010","journal-title":"Telecommun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Forest fire detection using wireless sensor networks","volume":"13","author":"Dasari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Sens. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-018-1872-3","article-title":"A novel approach of WSN routing protocols comparison for forest fire detection","volume":"26","author":"Moussa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, M., Sushil, R., and Ghosh, K. (2019, January 18\u201319). Detecting and Reporting Forest Fire through Deployment of Three Dimensional Multi-sink Wireless Sensor Network. Proceedings of the 2019 4th International Conference on Internet of Things: Smart Innovation and Usages (IoT-SIU), Ghaziabad, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoT-SIU.2019.8777485"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012139","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/536\/1\/012139","article-title":"Hardware Based Data Aggregation Routing Protocol for Forest Preventive Fire System","volume":"536","author":"Yasri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antunes, M., Ferreira, L.M., Viegas, C., Coimbra, A.P., and de Almeida, A.T. (2019, January 15\u201318). Low-Cost System for Early Detection and Deployment of Countermeasures against Wild Fires. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 5th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Limerick, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT.2019.8767331"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.11648\/j.net.20180601.13","article-title":"An Improved Forest Fire Alerting System Using Wireless Sensor Network","volume":"6","author":"Jan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Netw."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Dhief, F.T., Latiff, N.M.A., Malik, N.N.N.A., Sabri, N., Albadr, M.A.A., and Jawad, M.M. (2019, January 2\u20134). Power Consumption Efficient Routing Protocol for Forest Fire Detection based on Mobile Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 14th Malaysia International Conference on Communication (MICC), Selangor, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MICC48337.2019.9037617"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1019106118419","article-title":"Location-Aided Routing (LAR) in mobile ad hoc networks","volume":"6","author":"Ko","year":"2000","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muniyandi, R.C., Qamar, F., and Jasim, A.N. (2020). Genetic optimized location aided routing protocol for VANET based on rectangular estimation of position. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10175759"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdali, T.-A.N., Hassan, R., Muniyandi, R.C., Mohd Aman, A.H., Nguyen, Q.N., and Al-Khaleefa, A.S. (2020). Optimized particle swarm optimization algorithm for the realization of an enhanced energy-aware location-aided routing protocol in manet. Information, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/info11110529"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1007\/s10586-012-0208-9","article-title":"Fast energy-aware OLSR routing in VANETs by means of a parallel evolutionary algorithm","volume":"16","author":"Toutouh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clust. Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023603308841","article-title":"Analysis of GSM\/GPRS cell with multiple data service classes","volume":"25","author":"Awan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"183","article-title":"Performance Comparison and Analysis of DSDV and AODV for MANET","volume":"2","author":"Ramesh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Manjula, S., Abhilash, C., Shaila, K., Venugopal, K., and Patnaik, L. (2008, January 19\u201321). Performance of aodv routing protocol using group and entity mobility models in wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, T.-N., Nguyen, T.-V., Shim, K., da Costa, D.B., and An, B. (2022). A Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based QoS Routing Protocol Exploiting Cross-Layer Design in Cognitive Radio Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEIC51217.2021.9369756"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152841","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3126844","article-title":"A New Deep Q-Network Design for QoS Multicast Routing in Cognitive Radio MANETs","volume":"9","author":"Tran","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39489","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3065288","article-title":"Elephant herding optimization Ad Hoc on-demand multipath distance vector routing protocol for MANET","volume":"9","author":"Sarhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/20\/7745\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:52:47Z","timestamp":1760143967000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/20\/7745"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s22207745"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22207745","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]]}}}