{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T19:57:15Z","timestamp":1790798235093,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]],"date-time":"2022-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666742400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although many studies have been devoted to integrating blockchain into IoT device management, access control, data integrity, security, and privacy, blockchain-facilitated IoT communication is still much less studied. Blockchain has great potential in decentralizing and securing IoT communications. In this paper, we propose an innovative IoT service platform powered by the consortium blockchain technology. The proposed platform abstracts machine-to-machine (M2M) and human-to-machine (H2M) communications into services provided by IoT devices. Then, it materializes the data exchange of the IoT network through smart contracts and blockchain transactions. Additionally, we introduce the auxiliary storage layer to the proposed platform to address various off-chain data storage needs. Our proof-of-concept implementation was tested against various workloads and connection sizes under different block configurations to evaluate the platform\u2019s transaction throughput, latency, and hardware utilization. The experimental results demonstrate that our solution can maintain high performance with a throughput of approximately 800 reads per second (RPS), 50\u201380 transactions per second (TPS), and a latency of 50 ms\u20132 s under light to moderate workloads. Our extensive evaluation of the performance impact of batch size, batch timeout, and connection size also provides valuable insights into the optimization of blockchain configuration for achieving high performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218186","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]],"date-time":"2022-10-26T07:17:48Z","timestamp":1666768668000},"page":"8186","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Secure Decentralized IoT Service Platform Using Consortium Blockchain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8180-5438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruipeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5089-9614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mengjun","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Barolli, L., Okada, Y., and Amato, F. (2020, January 24\u201326). Blockchain for IoT-Based Digital Supply Chain: A Survey. Proceedings of the Advances in Internet, Data and Web Technologies, Kitakyushu, Japan."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86746","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2920682","article-title":"Blockchain Applications in Smart Grid\u2013Review and Frameworks","volume":"7","author":"Musleh","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2020.2963840","article-title":"Blockchain for IoT-Based Healthcare: Background, Consensus, Platforms, and Use Cases","volume":"15","author":"Ray","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AbuNaser, M., and Alkhatib, A.A. (2019, January 9\u201311). Advanced survey of Blockchain for the Internet of Things Smart Home. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Jordan International Joint Conference on Electrical Engineering and Information Technology (JEEIT), Amman, Jordan.","DOI":"10.1109\/JEEIT.2019.8717441"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2018.3111245","article-title":"Blockchain Access Privacy: Challenges and Directions","volume":"16","author":"Henry","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Salimitari, M., and Chatterjee, M. (2018). A Survey on Consensus Protocols in Blockchain for IoT Networks. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"51","article-title":"Consortium Blockchains: Overview, Applications and Challenges","volume":"11","author":"Dib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Castro, M., and Liskov, B. (1999, January 22\u201325). Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance. Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation, OSDI \u201999, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ongaro, D., and Ousterhout, J. (2014, January 19\u201320). In Search of an Understandable Consensus Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 14), Philadelphia, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.113385","article-title":"A survey of blockchain consensus algorithms performance evaluation criteria","volume":"154","author":"Bamakan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"578","article-title":"Towards Secure IoT Communication with Smart Contracts in a Blockchain Infrastructure","volume":"9","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hang, L., and Kim, D.H. (2019). Design and Implementation of an Integrated IoT Blockchain Platform for Sensing Data Integrity. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19102228"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Lu, C., Cheng, G., Guo, T., Kang, J., Zhang, X., Yuan, X., and Yan, X. (2021). A Blockchain-Based Trusted Edge Platform in Edge Computing Environment. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21062126"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panarello, A., Tapas, N., Merlino, G., Longo, F., and Puliafito, A. (2018). Blockchain and IoT Integration: A Systematic Survey. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082575"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., and Badr, Y. (2018). Identity Management Systems for the Internet of Things: A Survey Towards Blockchain Solutions. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124215"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Fromknecht, C., Velicanu, D., and Yakoubov, S. (2022, September 22). CertCoin: A NameCoin Based Decentralized Authentication System 6.857 Class Project. Available online: https:\/\/courses.csail.mit.edu\/6.857\/2014\/files\/19-fromknecht-velicann-yakoubov-certcoin.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Axon, L. (2022, September 22). Privacy-Awareness in Blockchain-Based PKI. Available online: https:\/\/ora.ox.ac.uk\/objects\/uuid:f8377b69-599b-4cae-8df0-f0cded53e63b\/datastreams\/ATTACHMENT01."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Bassam, M. (2017, January 2). SCPKI: A Smart Contract-Based PKI and Identity System. Proceedings of the ACM Workshop on Blockchain, Cryptocurrencies and Contracts, BCC \u201917, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1145\/3055518.3055530"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouras, M.A., Lu, Q., Dhelim, S., and Ning, H. (2021). A Lightweight Blockchain-Based IoT Identity Management Approach. Future Internet, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13020024"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Reed, D., Law, J., and Hardman, D. (2022, September 22). The Technical Foundations of Sovrin. Available online: https:\/\/sovrin.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/04\/The-Technical-Foundations-of-Sovrin.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2021, October 21). Hyperledger Indy. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyperledger.org\/use\/hyperledger-indy."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Androulaki, E., Barger, A., Bortnikov, V., Cachin, C., Christidis, K., De Caro, A., Enyeart, D., Ferris, C., Laventman, G., and Manevich, Y. (2018, January 23\u201326). Hyperledger Fabric: A Distributed Operating System for Permissioned Blockchains. Proceedings of the Thirteenth EuroSys Conference, EuroSys \u201918, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1145\/3190508.3190538"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riabi, I., Ayed, H.K.B., and Saidane, L.A. (2019, January 24\u201328). A survey on Blockchain based access control for Internet of Things. Proceedings of the 2019 15th International Wireless Communications & Mobile Computing Conference (IWCMC), Tangier, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWCMC.2019.8766453"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5943","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.1748","article-title":"FairAccess: A new Blockchain-based access control framework for the Internet of Things","volume":"9","author":"Ouaddah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Networks"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alphand, O., Amoretti, M., Claeys, T., Dall\u2019Asta, S., Duda, A., Ferrari, G., Rousseau, F., Tourancheau, B., Veltri, L., and Zanichelli, F. (2018, January 15\u201318). IoTChain: A Blockchain Security Architecture for the Internet of Things. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2018.8377385"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e455","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.455","article-title":"IoT-CCAC: A blockchain-based consortium capability access control approach for IoT","volume":"7","author":"Bouras","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2020.102656","article-title":"Blockchain-based decentralized storage networks: A survey","volume":"162","author":"Benisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, August 30). Storj: A Decentralized Cloud Storage Network Framework. Available online: https:\/\/www.storj.io\/storj.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Vorick, D., and Champine, L. (2022, August 30). Sia: Simple Decentralized Storage. Available online: https:\/\/blockchainlab.com\/pdf\/whitepaper3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, October 21). A Decentralized Storage Network for Humanity\u2019s Most Important Information. Filecoin, Available online: https:\/\/fileCoin.io\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00d6zyilmaz, K.R., Do\u011fan, M., and Yurdakul, A. (2018, January 20\u201322). IDMoB: IoT Data Marketplace on Blockchain. Proceedings of the 2018 Crypto Valley Conference on Blockchain Technology (CVCBT), Zug, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00007"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzianos, P., Pipelidis, G., and Tsiamitros, N. (2019, January 14\u201317). Hermes: An Open and Transparent Marketplace for IoT Sensor Data over Distributed Ledgers. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751331"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajoudah, S., Dong, C., and Missier, P. (2019, January 14\u201317). Toward a Decentralized, Trust-less Marketplace for Brokered IoT Data Trading using Blockchain. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain (Blockchain), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/Blockchain.2019.00053"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C.H.V., Huang, C.C.J., Yuan, Y.H., and Yuan, Z.s.S. (2020, January 2\u20136). A Fully Decentralized Infrastructure for Subscription-based IoT Data Trading. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain (Blockchain), Rhodes, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/Blockchain50366.2020.00027"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021, October 21). Home|IOTA. Available online: https:\/\/data.iota.org\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, October 21). XBR: Open Data Markets Infrastructure. Available online: https:\/\/xbr.network\/."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). Unstoppable Data for Unstoppable Apps: DATAcoin: By Streamr. Available online: https:\/\/www.securities.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/streamr-datacoin-whitepaper-2017-07-25-v1_1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2021, October 21). Slock.it. Available online: https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150724122424\/http:\/\/slock.it\/."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fakhri, D., and Mutijarsa, K. (2018, January 23\u201324). Secure IoT Communication using Blockchain Technology. Proceedings of the 2018 International Symposium on Electronics and Smart Devices (ISESD), Bandung, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISESD.2018.8605485"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). MQTT\u2014The Standard for IoT Messaging. Available online: https:\/\/mqtt.org."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickstr\u00f6m, J., Westerlund, M., and Pulkkis, G. (2021, January 10\u201313). Smart Contract based Distributed IoT Security: A Protocol for Autonomous Device Management. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE\/ACM 21st International Symposium on Cluster, Cloud and Internet Computing (CCGrid), Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCGrid51090.2021.00094"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022, May 14). Wake Word Detection & Keyword Spotting|Picovoice On-Device Voice AI. Available online: https:\/\/picovoice.ai\/platform\/porcupine\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2022, May 14). Baabaaox\/Go-Webrtcvad: WebRTC Voice Activity Detection for Golang. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/baabaaox\/go-webrtcvad."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2022, May 14). Voice Commands & NLU|Picovoice On-Device Voice Recognition. Available online: https:\/\/picovoice.ai\/platform\/rhino\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Antonakakis, M., April, T., Bailey, M., Bernhard, M., Bursztein, E., Cochran, J., Durumeric, Z., Halderman, J.A., Invernizzi, L., and Kallitsis, M. (2017, January 3). Understanding the Mirai Botnet. Proceedings of the 26th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 17), Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keahey, K., Mambretti, J., Ruth, P., and Stanzione, D. (2019, January 8\u201310). Chameleon: A Large-Scale, Deeply Reconfigurable Testbed for Computer Science Research. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 27th International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICNP.2019.8888067"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022, May 05). Hyperledger Caliper. Available online: https:\/\/hyperledger.github.io\/caliper\/."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1007\/s11280-020-00851-6","article-title":"Solutions for concurrency conflict problem on Hyperledger Fabric","volume":"24","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Wide Web"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Performance, H., and Group, S.W. (2022, March 27). Hyperledger Blockchain Performance Metrics. Available online: https:\/\/www.hyperledger.org\/learn\/publications\/blockchain-performance-metrics."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). Prometheus\u2014Monitoring System & Time Series Database. Available online: https:\/\/prometheus.io."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baliga, A., Solanki, N., Verekar, S., Pednekar, A., Kamat, P., and Chatterjee, S. (2018, January 20\u201322). Performance Characterization of Hyperledger Fabric. Proceedings of the 2018 Crypto Valley Conference on Blockchain Technology (CVCBT), Zug, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00013"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2188","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2882794","article-title":"Blockchain Technologies for the Internet of Things: Research Issues and Challenges","volume":"6","author":"Ferrag","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brotsis, S., Kolokotronis, N., Limniotis, K., Bendiab, G., and Shiaeles, S. (2020, January 18\u201323). On the Security and Privacy of Hyperledger Fabric: Challenges and Open Issues. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE World Congress on Services (SERVICES), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SERVICES48979.2020.00049"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, H., Dai, T., Jean-Louis, N., Tao, S., and Gu, X. (2019, January 24\u201327). FabZK: Supporting Privacy-Preserving, Auditable Smart Contracts in Hyperledger Fabric. Proceedings of the 2019 49th Annual IEEE\/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/DSN.2019.00061"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82721","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2924045","article-title":"A Survey on IoT Security: Application Areas, Security Threats, and Solution Architectures","volume":"7","author":"Hassija","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8186\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:02:53Z","timestamp":1760144573000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8186"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22218186"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22218186","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]]}}}