{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T05:35:49Z","timestamp":1789450549431,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]],"date-time":"2022-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666828800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["13FH017IX6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13FH017IX6"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the long history of fingerprint biometrics and its use to authenticate individuals, there are still some unsolved challenges with fingerprint acquisition and presentation attack detection (PAD). Currently available commercial fingerprint capture devices struggle with non-ideal skin conditions, including soft skin in infants. They are also susceptible to presentation attacks, which limits their applicability in unsupervised scenarios such as border control. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) could be a promising solution to these problems. In this work, we propose a digital signal processing chain for segmenting two complementary fingerprints from the same OCT fingertip scan: One fingerprint is captured as usual from the epidermis (\u201couter fingerprint\u201d), whereas the other is taken from inside the skin, at the junction between the epidermis and the underlying dermis (\u201cinner fingerprint\u201d). The resulting 3D fingerprints are then converted to a conventional 2D grayscale representation from which minutiae points can be extracted using existing methods. Our approach is device-independent and has been proven to work with two different time domain OCT scanners. Using efficient GPGPU computing, it took less than a second to process an entire gigabyte of OCT data. To validate the results, we captured OCT fingerprints of 130 individual fingers and compared them with conventional 2D fingerprints of the same fingers. We found that both the outer and inner OCT fingerprints were backward compatible with conventional 2D fingerprints, with the inner fingerprint generally being less damaged and, therefore, more reliable.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218229","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]],"date-time":"2022-10-27T22:36:17Z","timestamp":1666910177000},"page":"8229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Robust Identification and Segmentation of the Outer Skin Layers in Volumetric Fingerprint Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Kirfel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Safety and Security Research, Bonn-Rhine-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, 53757 Sankt Augustin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Scheer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Safety and Security Research, Bonn-Rhine-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, 53757 Sankt Augustin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norbert","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Safety and Security Research, Bonn-Rhine-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, 53757 Sankt Augustin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9159-2923","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Busch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Biometrics Laboratory, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2815 Gj\u00f8vik, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2008). European Union, Regulation (EC) no 767\/2008 of the European parliament and of the council. Off. J. Eur. Union."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_2.1","unstructured":"(2017). European Union, Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_2.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2017\/2226 of the European parliament and of the council. Off. J. Eur. Union."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olsen, M.A., Dusio, M., and Busch, C. (2015, January 3\u20134). Fingerprint skin moisture impact on biometric performance. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Biometrics and Forensics (IWBF 2015), Gjovik, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWBF.2015.7110223"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krishnasamy, P., Belongie, S., and Kriegman, D. (2011, January 11\u201313). Wet fingerprint recognition: Challenges and opportunities. Proceedings of the 2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IJCB.2011.6117594"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"626148","article-title":"Influence of Skin Diseases on Fingerprint Recognition","volume":"2012","author":"Drahansky","year":"2012","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jain, A.K., Arora, S.S., Best-Rowden, L., Cao, K., Sudhish, P.S., and Bhatnagar, A. (2015). Biometrics for Child Vaccination and Welfare: Persistence of Fingerprint Recognition for Infants and Toddlers, Michigan State University. Michigan State University Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, A.K., Arora, S.S., Best-Rowden, L., Cao, K., Sudhish, P.S., Bhatnagar, A., and Koda, Y. (2016, January 3\u20136). Giving Infants an Identity: Fingerprint Sensing and Recognition. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2909609.2909612"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-bmt.2013.0020","article-title":"Presentation attack detection methods for fingerprint recognition systems: A survey","volume":"3","author":"Sousedik","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Biom."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomez-Barrero, C.M., Kolberg, J., and Busch, C. (2019, January 4\u20137). Multi-Modal Fingerprint Presentation Attack Detection: Analysing the Surface and the Inside. Proceedings of the 12th IAPR International Conference on Biometrics (ICB 2019), Crete, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICB45273.2019.8987260"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3248","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.003248","article-title":"Twenty-five years of optical coherence tomography: The paradigm shift in sensitivity and speed provided by Fourier domain OCT","volume":"8","author":"Leitgeb","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1957169","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography","volume":"254","author":"Huang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yasuno, Y., Makita, S., Endo, T., Aoki, G., Nakamura, Y., Yamanari, M., Itoh, M., and Yatagai, T. (2005, January 1\u20134). Standard and Line-Field Fourier Domain Optical Coherence Tomography. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference 2005 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2005.1616177"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4465","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.6.004465","article-title":"Fingerprint imaging from the inside of a finger with full-field optical coherence tomography","volume":"6","author":"Auksorius","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2007.250596","article-title":"Pores and Ridges: High-Resolution Fingerprint Matching Using Level 3 Features","volume":"29","author":"Jain","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1001\/archderm.1958.01560010014003","article-title":"The Epidermal vs. the Dermal Fingerprint","volume":"77","author":"Plotnick","year":"1958","journal-title":"AMA Arch. Derm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9238","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.009238","article-title":"Artificial fingerprint recognition by using optical coherence tomography with autocorrelation analysis","volume":"45","author":"Cheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"64020O","article-title":"Identification of artificial fingerprints using optical coherence tomography technique","volume":"6402","author":"Cheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"SPIE"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darlow, L.N., Akhoury, S.S., and Connan, J. (2014, January 19\u201321). A review of state-of-the-art speckle reduction techniques for optical coherence tomography fingertip scans. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Machine Vision (ICMV 2014), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2180537"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darlow, L.N., Akhoury, S.S., and Connan, J. (2015, January 3\u20135). Internal fingerprint acquisition from optical coherence tomography fingertip scans. Proceedings of the 2015 Third International Conference on Digital Information, Networking, and Wireless Communications (DINWC), Moscow, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/DINWC.2015.7054241"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"023027","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JEI.24.2.023027","article-title":"Internal fingerprint zone detection in optical coherence tomography fingertip scans","volume":"24","author":"Darlow","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9258","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.009258","article-title":"Efficient internal and surface fingerprint extraction and blending using optical coherence tomography","volume":"54","author":"Darlow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darlow, L.N., Connan, J., and Singh, A. (2016, January 13\u201316). Performance analysis of a Hybrid fingerprint extracted from optical coherence tomography fingertip scans. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Biometrics (ICB), Halmstad, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICB.2016.7550045"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3387","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.003387","article-title":"Automated spoof-detection for fingerprints using optical coherence tomography","volume":"55","author":"Darlow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Darlow, L.N., Singh, A., Moolla, Y., Ramokolo, R., van Wyk, R., Botha, N., and Webb-Ray, L. (2016, January 14\u201316). Damage invariant and high security acquisition of the internal fingerprint using optical coherence tomography. Proceedings of the World Congress on Internet Security (WorldCIS-2016), London, UK."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.22.9.096002","article-title":"Fast subsurface fingerprint imaging with full-field optical coherence tomography system equipped with a silicon camera","volume":"22","author":"Auksorius","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15194","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2966241","article-title":"Compact and Mobile Full-Field Optical Coherence Tomography Sensor for Subsurface Fingerprint Imaging","volume":"8","author":"Auksorius","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meissner, S., Breithaupt, R., and Koch, E. (2013, January 4\u20136). Fingerprint fake detection by optical coherence tomography. Proceedings of the Optical Coherence Tomography and Coherence Domain Optical Methods in Biomedicine XVII, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.1000091"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sousedik, C., Breithaupt, R., and Busch, C. (2013, January 4\u20136). Volumetric Fingerprint Data Analysis using Optical Coherence Tomography. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference of the BIOSIG Special Interest Group, Darmstadt, Germany."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Sousedik, C., and Busch, C. (October, January 29). Quality of fingerprint scans captured using Optical Coherence Tomography. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Biometrics, Clearwater, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breithaupt, R., Sousedik, C., and Meissner, S. (2015, January 3\u20134). Full fingerprint scanner using optical coherence tomography. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Biometrics and Forensics (IWBF 2015), Gjovik, Norway.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWBF.2015.7110228"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousedik, C., and Breithaupt, R. (2017, January 4\u20135). Full-fingerprint volumetric subsurface imaging using Fourier-domain Optical Coherence Tomography. Proceedings of the 2017 5th International Workshop on Biometrics and Forensics (IWBF), Coventry, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWBF.2017.7935082"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousedik, C., Breithaupt, R., and Bours, P. (2017). Classification of Fingerprints Captured Using Optical Coherence Tomography, Springer International Publishing. Image Analysis.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-59129-2_28"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Federal Office for Information Security (2021). TR-03121-3.1 Technical Guideline Biometrics for Public Sector Applications. Part 3: Application Profiles and Function Modules, Volume 1: Border Control, Version 5.2, Federal Office for Information Security."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Federal Office for Information Security (2021). TR-03121-3.2 Technical Guideline Biometrics for Public Sector Applications. Part 3: Application Profiles and Function Modules, Volume 2: Enrollment Scenarios for Identity Documents, Version 5.2, Federal Office for Information Security."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8229\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:04:09Z","timestamp":1760144649000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8229"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22218229"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22218229","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]}}}