{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,11]],"date-time":"2026-01-11T01:46:29Z","timestamp":1768095989850,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]],"date-time":"2022-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667347200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["871249"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["871249"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PY18-4647:PENTA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PY18-4647:PENTA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Junta de Andalucia","award":["871249"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["871249"]}]},{"name":"Junta de Andalucia","award":["PY18-4647:PENTA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PY18-4647:PENTA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Detecting and locating victims in emergency scenarios comprise one of the most powerful tools to save lives. Fast actions are crucial for victims because time is running against them. Radio devices are currently omnipresent within the physical proximity of most people and allow locating buried victims in catastrophic scenarios. In this work, we present the benefits of using WiFi Fine Time Measurement (FTM), Ultra-Wide Band (UWB), and fusion technologies to locate victims under rubble. Integrating WiFi FTM and UWB in a drone may cover vast areas in a short time. Moreover, the detection capacity of WiFi and UWB for finding individuals is also compared. These findings are then used to propose a method for detecting and locating victims in disaster scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218433","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,3]],"date-time":"2022-11-03T03:53:07Z","timestamp":1667447587000},"page":"8433","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Victim Detection and Localization in Emergencies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7791-0369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos S.","family":"\u00c1lvarez-Merino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Telecommunication Research (TELMA), CEI Andalucia TECH E.T.S.I. Telecommunication, University of Malaga, Bulevar Louis Pasteur 35, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8518-7297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emil J.","family":"Khatib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Telecommunication Research (TELMA), CEI Andalucia TECH E.T.S.I. Telecommunication, University of Malaga, Bulevar Louis Pasteur 35, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3024-0294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao Qiang","family":"Luo-Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Telecommunication Research (TELMA), CEI Andalucia TECH E.T.S.I. Telecommunication, University of Malaga, Bulevar Louis Pasteur 35, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8993-5229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raquel","family":"Barco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Telecommunication Research (TELMA), CEI Andalucia TECH E.T.S.I. Telecommunication, University of Malaga, Bulevar Louis Pasteur 35, 29071 Malaga, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yanguas-Rojas, D., Cardona, G.A., Ramirez-Rugeles, J., and Mojica-Nava, E. (2017, January 18\u201320). Victims search, identification, and evacuation with heterogeneous robot networks for search and rescue. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 3rd Colombian Conference on Automatic Control (CCAC), Cartagena, Colombia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCAC.2017.8276486"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.12.959","article-title":"Recommendation based rescue operation model for flood victim using smart IoT devices","volume":"46","author":"Goyal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2021, July 09). T\u00e9cnicas de Rescate ante Cat\u00e1strofes. Available online: https:\/\/www.comunidad.madrid\/inversion\/madrid\/respuesta-inmediata-catastrofes."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"3GPP (2020). Location Services (LCS). Technical Specification (TS) 22.071, 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), 3GPP. Version 16.0.0."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levinson, J., Askeland, J., Becker, J., Dolson, J., Held, D., Kammel, S., Kolter, J.Z., Langer, D., Pink, O., and Pratt, V. (2011, January 5\u20139). Towards fully autonomous driving: Systems and algorithms. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE intelligent vehicles symposium (IV), Baden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2011.5940562"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2018.1564379","article-title":"Camera localization for augmented reality and indoor positioning: A vision-based 3D feature database approach","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Daily, C., and Apple AirTags Use UWB Wireless Tech (2021, September 22). Here\u2019s How Ultra Wideband Makes Your Life Easier. Available online: https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/tech\/mobile\/apple-airtags-use-uwb-wireless-tech-heres-how-ultra-wideband-makes-your-life-easier\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2022, October 21). Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Communication. Available online: https:\/\/developer.android.com\/guide\/topics\/connectivity\/uwb."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Developer, A. (2021, November 03). Wi-Fi Location: Ranging with RTT. Available online: https:\/\/developer.android.com\/guide\/topics\/connectivity\/wifi-rtt."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Amsters, R., Demeester, E., Stevens, N., Lauwers, Q., and Slaets, P. (2019, January 24\u201328). Evaluation of low-cost\/high-accuracy indoor positioning systems. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Advances in Sensors, Actuators, Metering and Sensing (ALLSENSORS), Athens, Greece."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Bernini, G., Venturi, N., Kraja, E., Nxw, M.D.A., Ropodi, A., Margaris, A., Tsagkaris, K., Garlisi, D., Morselli, F., and Torsoli, G. (2007). DELIVERABLE D4. 4, Oxford Brookes University."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gentner, C., Ulmschneider, M., Kuehner, I., and Dammann, A. (2020, January 20\u201323). WiFi-RTT Indoor Positioning. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Portland, ON, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS46316.2020.9110232"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1lvarez-Merino, C.S., Luo-Chen, H.Q., Khatib, E.J., and Barco, R. (2021). WiFi FTM, UWB and Cellular-Based Radio Fusion for Indoor Positioning. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217020"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101398","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2998776","article-title":"Audio-Processing-Based human detection at disaster sites with unmanned aerial vehicle","volume":"8","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tariq, R., Rahim, M., Aslam, N., Bawany, N., and Faseeha, U. (2018, January 8\u201310). Dronaid: A smart human detection drone for rescue. Proceedings of the 2018 15th International Conference on Smart Cities: Improving Quality of Life Using ICT & IoT (HONET-ICT), Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/HONET.2018.8551326"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sulistijono, I.A., Imansyah, T., Muhajir, M., Sutoyo, E., Anwar, M.K., Satriyanto, E., Basuki, A., and Risnumawan, A. (2018, January 29\u201330). Implementation of Victims Detection Framework on Post Disaster Scenario. Proceedings of the 2018 International Electronics Symposium on Engineering Technology and Applications (IES-ETA), Bali, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ELECSYM.2018.8615503"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s10960-004-5793-9","article-title":"Psychological consequences of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey","volume":"17","author":"Tural","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress. Off. Publ. Int. Soc. Trauma. Stress Stud."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andriluka, M., Schnitzspan, P., Meyer, J., Kohlbrecher, S., Petersen, K., Von Stryk, O., Roth, S., and Schiele, B. (2010, January 18\u201322). Vision based victim detection from unmanned aerial vehicles. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2010.5649223"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Naji, A., Perera, A.G., Mohammed, S.L., and Chahl, J. (2019). Life signs detector using a drone in disaster zones. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11202441"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afridi, A., Minallah, N., Sami, I., Allah, M., Ali, Z., and Ullah, S. (2019, January 2\u20133). Flood Rescue Operations Using Artificially Intelligent UAVs. Proceedings of the 2019 15th International Conference on Emerging Technologies (ICET), Peshawar, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICET48972.2019.8994394"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3mez-de Gabriel, J.M., Gandarias, J.M., P\u00e9rez-Maldonado, F.J., Garc\u00eda-N\u00fa\u00f1cz, F.J., Fern\u00e1ndez-Garc\u00eda, E.J., and Garc\u00eda-Cerezo, A.J. (2018, January 1\u20135). Methods for autonomous wristband placement with a search-and-rescue aerial manipulator. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2018.8594202"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2021, July 07). Finding Individuals for Disaster and Emergency Response (FINDER), Available online: www.dhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/x3_finder_fact_sheet_final_190904.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Schafer, J., and Ganz, A. (2017, January 10\u201312). Disaster response: Victims\u2019 localization using bluetooth low energy sensors. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST), Waltham, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/THS.2017.7943504"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2019.1800467","article-title":"An overview of post-disaster emergency communication systems in the future networks","volume":"26","author":"Deepak","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1124","article-title":"Survey of cellular mobile radio localization methods: From 1G to 5G","volume":"20","author":"Raulefs","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"3GPP (2018). 5G; NG-RAN; NR Positioning Protocol A (NRPPa). Technical report (TR) 38.455, 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), 3GPP. Version 15.0.0."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"3GPP (2018). Study on NR positioning support. Technical Report (TR) 38.855, 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), 3GPP."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2022, June 09). Motorola Edge+ Promises 4Gbps Speeds\u2014If 5G mmWave Networks Catch Up. Available online: https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2020\/04\/22\/motorola-edge-promises-4gbps-speeds-if-5g-mmwave-networks-catch-up\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fc\u00fcrsepp, I., Kulmar, M., Elghary, O., Alam, M.M., Chen, T., Horsmanheimo, S., and Scholliers, J. (2021, January 7\u201310). Performance Evaluation of 5G-NR Positioning Accuracy Using Time Difference of Arrival Method. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Mediterranean Conference on Communications and Networking (MeditCom), Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeditCom49071.2021.9647652"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2021.3074960","article-title":"Opportunistic fusion of ranges from different sources for indoor positioning","volume":"25","author":"Khatib","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"ETSI (2021, September 02). Ultra Wide Band. Available online: https:\/\/www.etsi.org\/technologies\/ultra-wide-band?jjj=1596015945046."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Decawave (2021, August 29). DWM1001 System Overview and Performance. Available online: https:\/\/www.decawave.com\/dwm1001\/systemoverview\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2008.2008846","article-title":"Ranging with ultrawide bandwidth signals in multipath environments","volume":"97","author":"Dardari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2006.1624185","article-title":"UWB radar for human being detection","volume":"21","author":"Yarovoy","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22101","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2761771","article-title":"An improved algorithm for through-wall target detection using ultra-wideband impulse radar","volume":"5","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Sun, L., Zhu, H., Lu, X., and Cheng, X. (May, January 27). Achieving privacy preservation in WiFi fingerprint-based localization. Proceedings of the IEEE Infocom 2014-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2014.6848178"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012116","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1343\/1\/012116","article-title":"An alternative approach to monitor occupancy using bluetooth low energy technology in an office environment","volume":"1343","author":"Tekler","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippoupolitis, A., Oliff, W., and Loukas, G. (2016). Occupancy detection for building emergency management using BLE beacons. International Symposium on Computer and Information Sciences, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47217-1_25"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2020.106681","article-title":"A scalable Bluetooth Low Energy approach to identify occupancy patterns and profiles in office spaces","volume":"171","author":"Tekler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98579","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2925406","article-title":"Mobile device detection through WiFi probe request analysis","volume":"7","author":"Oliveira","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2021, September 28). DecaWave. Available online: https:\/\/www.decawave.com\/application-notes\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2021, September 28). Google Support. Available online: https:\/\/support.google.com\/googlenest\/thread\/44036979\/google-wifi-transmit-power-value?hl=en."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8433\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:09:32Z","timestamp":1760144972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8433"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22218433"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22218433","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]]}}}