{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T20:38:46Z","timestamp":1773520726091,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,3]],"date-time":"2022-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667433600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A real-time head pose and gaze estimation (HPGE) algorithm has excellent potential for technological advancements either in human\u2013machine or human\u2013robot interactions. For example, in high-accuracy advent applications such as Driver\u2019s Assistance System (DAS), HPGE plays a crucial role in omitting accidents and road hazards. In this paper, the authors propose a new hybrid framework for improved estimation by combining both the appearance and geometric-based conventional methods to extract local and global features. Therefore, the Zernike moments algorithm has been prominent in extracting rotation, scale, and illumination invariant features. Later, conventional discriminant algorithms were used to classify the head poses and gaze direction. Furthermore, the experiments were performed on standard datasets and real-time images to analyze the accuracy of the proposed algorithm. As a result, the proposed framework has immediately estimated the range of direction changes under different illumination conditions. We obtained an accuracy of ~85%; the average response time was 21.52 and 7.483 ms for estimating head poses and gaze, respectively, independent of illumination, background, and occlusion. The proposed method is promising for future developments of a robust system that is invariant even to blurring conditions and thus reaching much more significant performance enhancement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218449","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,3]],"date-time":"2022-11-03T04:49:20Z","timestamp":1667450960000},"page":"8449","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Novel Zernike Moment-Based Real-Time Head Pose and Gaze Estimation Framework for Accuracy-Sensitive Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0825-4211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hima","family":"Vankayalapati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankovil 626126, India"}]},{"given":"Swarna","family":"Kuchibhotla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram 522302, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2855-9071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohan","family":"Chadalavada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, VelTech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 600062, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8443-736X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shashi","family":"Dargar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankovil 626126, India"}]},{"given":"Koteswara","family":"Anne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankovil 626126, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0773-9476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyandoghere","family":"Kyamakya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt am W\u00f6rthersee, Austria"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2008.2009261","article-title":"3-D Head Pose Estimation in Monocular Video Sequences Using Deformable Surfaces And Radial Basis Functions","volume":"19","author":"Krinidis","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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