{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T09:16:14Z","timestamp":1780478174445,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]],"date-time":"2022-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Nation Social Science Fund of China","award":["17BC043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17BC043"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Previous research comparing traditional two-dimensional (2D) and virtual reality with stereoscopic vision (VR-3D) stimulations revealed that VR-3D resulted in higher levels of immersion. However, the effects of these two visual modes on emotional stimulus processing have not been thoroughly investigated, and the underlying neural processing mechanisms remain unclear. Thus, this paper introduced a cognitive psychological experiment that was conducted to investigate how these two visual modes influence emotional processing. To reduce fatigue, participants (n = 16) were randomly assigned to watch a series of 2D and VR-3D short emotional videos for two days. During their participation, electroencephalograms (EEG) were recorded simultaneously. The results showed that even in the absence of sound, visual stimuli in the VR environment significantly increased emotional arousal, especially in the frontal region, parietal region, temporal region, and occipital region. On this basis, visual evoked potential (VEP) analysis was performed. VR stimulation compared to 2D led to a larger P1 component amplitude, while VEP analysis based on the time course of the late event-related potential component revealed that, after 1200 ms, the differences across visual modes became stable and significant. Furthermore, the results also confirmed that VEP in the early stages is more sensitive to emotions and presumably there are corresponding emotion regulation mechanisms in the late stages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22218491","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]],"date-time":"2022-11-04T09:26:00Z","timestamp":1667553960000},"page":"8491","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["A Comparative Study on the Temporal Effects of 2D and VR Emotional Arousal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Feng","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Film Academy, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Film Special Effects Engineering Technology Research Center, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuefei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Film Academy, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wanqiu","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Film Academy, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingxuan","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Film Academy, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Film Academy, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tele.2018.04.003","article-title":"Emotional effect of cinematic VR compared with traditional 2D film","volume":"35","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Telemat. Inform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1515\/COMMUN.2006.018","article-title":"Emotional gratifications during media use\u2014An integrative approach","volume":"31","author":"Bartsch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Communications"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00026","article-title":"The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: A review of research in virtual reality","volume":"6","author":"Diemer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00660","article-title":"Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences","volume":"9","author":"Parsons","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2010.0100","article-title":"The role of immersion and narrative in mediated presence: The virtual hospital experience","volume":"14","author":"Gorini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.09.012","article-title":"Empathy and embodied experience in virtual environment: To what extent can virtual reality stimulate empathy and embodied experience?","volume":"78","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusres.2018.10.027","article-title":"The effects of virtual reality (VR) on charitable giving: The role of empathy, guilt, responsibility, and social exclusion","volume":"100","author":"Kandaurova","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bus. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"al Alam, R.T., and Dibben, N. (2021, January 6\u20137). A comparison of presence and emotion between immersive virtual reality and desktop displays for musical multimedia. Proceedings of the Future Directions of Music Cognition 2021 Virtual Conference, Virtual.","DOI":"10.18061\/FDMC.2021.0017"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-01242-0","article-title":"Effectiveness of immersive videos in inducing awe: An experimental study","volume":"7","author":"Chirico","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2017.05.006","article-title":"Psychological and physiological human responses to simulated and real environments: A comparison between photographs, 360 panoramas, and virtual reality","volume":"65","author":"Maldonado","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3167\/proj.2008.020102","article-title":"Neurocinematics: The neuroscience of film","volume":"2","author":"Hasson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Projections"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fundamentals of eeg measurement","volume":"2","author":"Teplan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1177\/009365090017003001","article-title":"Involuntary attention and physiological arousal evoked by structural features and emotional content in tv commercials","volume":"17","author":"Lang","year":"1990","journal-title":"Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, F., Hua, M., Zhang, W., Li, Y., and Yang, X. (2021). Emotional arousal in 2D versus 3D virtual reality environments. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256211"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, F., and Zhang, W. (2021, January 9\u201311). The difference of emotional arousal between traditional 2D and VR movies: A comparative study based on eeg signals. Proceedings of the 2021 6th International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Signal Processing (ICSP), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSP51882.2021.9408991"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poeschl, S., Wall, K., and Doering, N. (2013, January 18\u201320). Integration of spatial sound in immersive virtual environments an experimental study on effects of spatial sound on presence. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Virtual Reality (VR), Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2013.6549396"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(02)00181-1","article-title":"The anatomy and time course of semantic priming investigated by fmri and erps","volume":"41","author":"Rossell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-018-00647-2","article-title":"Associated valence impacts early visual processing of letter strings: Evidence from erps in a cross-modal learning paradigm","volume":"19","author":"Bayer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2003.10.014","article-title":"Modulation of cognitive processing by emotional valence studied through event-related potentials in humans","volume":"356","author":"Delplanque","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.04.032","article-title":"Associated motivational salience impacts early sensory processing of human faces","volume":"156","author":"Hammerschmidt","year":"2017","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"54","article-title":"EEG processing and its application in brain-computer interface","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/87565640903526504","article-title":"Event-related potentials, emotion, and emotion regulation: An integrative review","volume":"35","author":"Hajcak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, A., Chang, M., Choi, Y., Jeon, S., and Lee, K. (2018, January 18\u201322). The effect of immersion on emotional responses to film viewing in a virtual environment. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), Tuebingen\/Reutlingen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2018.8446046"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","article-title":"Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":"Bradley","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R15","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/26\/1\/R02","article-title":"Independent component analysis for biomedical signals","volume":"26","author":"James","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/22\/4\/305","article-title":"A method to standardize a reference of scalp eeg recordings to a point at infinity","volume":"22","author":"Yao","year":"2001","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunaharan, S., Halpin, S., Sitharthan, T., and Walla, P. (2019). Do eeg and startle reflex modulation vary with self-reported aggression in response to violent images?. Brain Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci9110298"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(87)90071-3","article-title":"Visual neurones responsive to faces","volume":"10","author":"Perrett","year":"1987","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1038\/348160a0","article-title":"The role of disparity-sensitive cortical neurons in signalling the direction of self-motion","volume":"348","author":"Roy","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, F., Wang, H., Cheng, W., Zhang, W., and Li, Y. (2021). A high-density EEG study investigating VR film editing and cognitive event segmentation theory. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217176"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.152.3.341","article-title":"Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women","volume":"152","author":"George","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1109\/JDT.2015.2451087","article-title":"Eeg-based assessment of stereoscopic 3d visual fatigue caused by vergence-accommodation conflict","volume":"11","author":"Zou","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Disp. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.154.7.926","article-title":"Neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness, and disgust","volume":"154","author":"Lane","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1162\/089892998562924","article-title":"Neural correlates of levels of emotional awareness: Evidence of an interaction between emotion and attention in the anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"10","author":"Lane","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1038\/79871","article-title":"Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions","volume":"3","author":"Damasio","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kweon, S.H., Kweon, H.J., Kim, S., Li, X., Liu, X., and Kweon, H.L. (2017, January 17\u201321). A brain wave research on VR (virtual reality) usage: Comparison between VR and 2D video in EEG measurement. Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Human Factors and Systems Interaction, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60366-7_19"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nst084","article-title":"Early visual erps are influenced by individual emotional skills","volume":"9","author":"Meaux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i125","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhm113","article-title":"Functional interactions between prefrontal and visual association cortex contribute to top-down modulation of visual processing","volume":"17","author":"Gazzaley","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1038\/11239","article-title":"Modality specific frontal and parietal areas for auditory and visual spatial localization in humans","volume":"2","author":"Bushara","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.96.4.1669","article-title":"Covariation of activity in visual and prefrontal cortex associated with subjective visual perception","volume":"96","author":"Lumer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8491\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:10:48Z","timestamp":1760145048000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/21\/8491"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22218491"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22218491","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]}}}