{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T11:39:58Z","timestamp":1761824398175,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668038400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003032","name":"Association Nationale de la Recherche et de la Technologie","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["203630 CNRS\/Aleia"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["203630 CNRS\/Aleia"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003032","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the past few years, the ability of wireless network operators to monitor audience using control frames emitted by client devices has been compromised, both by legislation treating client MAC addresses as private information and by the difficulty of distinguishing genuine client frames from those arising from the Internet of Things or from certain enhanced services. Here, a deterministic model, based on characteristics of human activity and on seasonal trends, is used to reveal underlying client statistics in raw MAC-randomized WiFi Probe Request data. The method proposes a candidate conversion factor, X, between probe request counts and the client population, which offers plausible predictions on real-world datasets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22228679","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T21:22:02Z","timestamp":1668115322000},"page":"8679","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Statistical Approach to Estimating Audience from MAC-Randomized WiFi Probe Requests"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2759-0621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Feifei","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aleia, 75008 Paris, France"},{"name":"Institut Langevin, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, 75005 Paris, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3618-5911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iness","family":"Ahriz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C.N.A.M. (National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts), 75003 Paris, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4572-1656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruce","family":"Denby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut Langevin, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, 75005 Paris, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freudiger, J. (2015, January 22\u201326). How talkative is your mobile device? An experimental study of Wi-Fi probe requests. Proceedings of the WiSec\u201915, Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2766498.2766517"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matte, C., Cunche, M., Rousseau, F., and Vanhoef, M. (2016, January 18\u201320). Defeating MAC address randomization through timing attacks. Proceedings of the 9th ACM Conference on Security & Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks, ACM, Darmstadt, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/2939918.2939930"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1515\/popets-2017-0054","article-title":"A study of MAC address randomization in mobile devices and when it fails","volume":"2017","author":"Martin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Priv. Enhancing Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2019.1587616","article-title":"Estimating real-time high-street footfall from Wi-Fi probe requests","volume":"34","author":"Soundararaj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uras, M., Cossu, R., Ferraray, E., Bagdasary, O., Liottaz, A., and Atzori, L. (2020, January 14\u201316). WiFi probes sniffing: An artificial Intelligence based approach for MAC addresses de-randomization. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 25th International Workshop on Computer Aided Modeling and Design of Communication Links and Networks (CAMAD), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/CAMAD50429.2020.9209257"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98579","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2925406","article-title":"Mobile device detection through WiFi probe request analysis","volume":"7","author":"Oliveira","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2021.101601","article-title":"Using Wi-Fi probe requests from mobile phones to quantify the impact of pedestrian flows on retail turnover","volume":"87","author":"Trasberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. 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Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-021-08209-5","article-title":"A Review of Indoor Localization Techniques and Wireless Technologies","volume":"119","author":"Obeidat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/22\/8679\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:13:44Z","timestamp":1760145224000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/22\/8679"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s22228679"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22228679","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]}}}