{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T16:27:36Z","timestamp":1774024056952,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020M672412"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020M672412"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we study data transmission in the Terrestrial\u2013Satellite Integrated Network (TSIN), where terrestrial networks and satellites are combined together to provide seamless global network services for ground users. However, efficiency of the data transmission is limited by the time-varying inter-satellite link connection and intermittent terrestrial\u2013satellite link connection. Therefore, we propose a link-state aware hybrid routing algorithm, which selects the integrated data transmission path adaptively in this paper. First of all, a space\u2013time topology model is constructed to represent the dynamic link connections in TSIN. Thus, the transmission delay can be analyzed accordingly, and the data transmission problem can then be formulated. To balance the effectiveness and accuracy of searching a hybrid path, we carefully discuss the optimization of space\u2013time topology updating, and propose an inter-satellite link selection algorithm. For the terrestrial\u2013satellite link in hybrid routing, the data transmission problem is transformed into a weighted bipartite graph matching problem and solved with a Kuhn\u2013Munkres-based link selection algorithm. To verify the effectiveness of our proposed routing algorithm, extensive simulations are conducted based on a realistic Hongyun constellation project. Results show that the network performance is improved with respect to data transmission delay, packet loss rate, and throughput.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239124","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T05:35:08Z","timestamp":1669268108000},"page":"9124","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Link-State Aware Hybrid Routing in the Terrestrial\u2013Satellite Integrated Network"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5599-0089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huihui","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Weaponry Engineering, Naval University of Engineering, Wuhan 430000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhangsong","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Weaponry Engineering, Naval University of Engineering, Wuhan 430000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4101-3938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mingliu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electronic Information School, Wuhan University and with the State Grid Hubei Electric Power Research Institute, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Weaponry Engineering, Naval University of Engineering, Wuhan 430000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanjun","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The 91458 Troops, Sanya 572021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6921-7369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guangjie","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Systems, Hohai University, Changzhou 213022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3029143","article-title":"Deep Reinforcement Learning for Delay-Oriented IoT Task Scheduling in Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1109\/TSC.2018.2858253","article-title":"Latency-Driven Fog Cooperation Approach in Fog Radio Access Networks","volume":"12","author":"Chiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Serv. Comput."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1766","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2959933","article-title":"Multicast Beamforming Optimization in Cloud-Based Heterogeneous Terrestrial and Satellite Networks","volume":"69","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1800193","article-title":"Software Defined Space-Terrestrial Integrated Networks: Architecture, Challenges and Solutions","volume":"33","author":"Bi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Netw. Mag."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Space-air-ground integrated networks: Review and prospect","volume":"4","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2018.1800365","article-title":"Optimizing Space-Air-Ground Integrated Networks by Artificial Intelligence","volume":"26","author":"Kato","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10127","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2020.3000908","article-title":"QoE-driven intelligent handover for user-centric mobile satellite networks","volume":"69","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2714","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2841996","article-title":"Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network: A Survey","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A., Kumar, N., Mohsan, S.A.H., Khan, W.U., Nasralla, M.M., Alsharif, M.H., Zywio\u0142ek, J., and Ullah, I. (2022). Swarm of UAVs for Network Management in 6G: A Technical Review. IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag.","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2022.3213370"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2019.1800301","article-title":"Ultra-dense LEO: Integrating Terrestrial-Satellite Networks into 5G and Beyond for Data Offloading","volume":"57","author":"Di","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.001.1900072","article-title":"A Comprehensive Simulation Platform for Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network","volume":"27","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2018.2804019","article-title":"Joint Placement of Controllers and Gateways in SDN-Enabled 5G-Satellite Integrated Network","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2015). Satellite Earth Stations and Systems (SES); Broadband Satellite Multimedia (BSM) Services and Architectures; Functional Architecture for IP Interworking with BSM Networks (Standard No. ETSI TS 102 292). Available online: http:\/\/www.etsi.org."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1800030","article-title":"Shared Access Satellite-Terrestrial Reconfigurable Backhaul Network Enabled by Smart Antennas at MmWave Band","volume":"32","author":"Artiga","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Li, H., and Wu, Q. (2017, January 10\u201312). Analyzing and optimizing BGP stability in future space-based internet. Proceedings of the IEEE International Performance Computing and Communications Conference, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PCCC.2017.8280463"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"42","article-title":"Topology discovery sub-layer for integrated terrestrial-satellite network routing schemes","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"12","article-title":"Intra-domain routing protocol OSPF+ for integrated terrestrial and space networks","volume":"57","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Tsinghua Univ. (Sci. Technol.)"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1109\/25.704858","article-title":"FSA-based link assignment and routing in lowearth orbit satellite networks","volume":"47","author":"Hong","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.823","article-title":"Priority-based adaptive routing in NGEO satellite networks","volume":"20","author":"Korcak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1109\/90.917071","article-title":"A distributed routing algorithm for datagram traffic in leo satellite networks","volume":"9","author":"Ekici","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6009","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2910570","article-title":"Temporal Netgrid Model-Based Dynamic Routing in Large-Scale Small Satellite Networks","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2010.06.019","article-title":"Agent-based load balancing routing for LEO satellite networks","volume":"54","author":"Rao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Z., Hu, G., Jin, F., Jiang, B., and Fu, Y. (2015, January 9\u201312). Agent-based dynamic routing in the packet-switched LEO satellite networks. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference Wireless Communication Signal Process, New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCSP.2015.7341005"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2008.918084","article-title":"Explicit Load Balancing Technique for NGEO Satellite IP Networks With On-Board Processing Capabilities","volume":"17","author":"Taleb","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2014.041014.130040","article-title":"TLR: A traffic-light-based intelligent routing strategy for NGEO satellite IP networks","volume":"13","author":"Song","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155136","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3017615","article-title":"A load balancing routing strategy for LEO satellite network","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2885473","article-title":"SDN-based End-to-end Fragment-aware Routing for Elastic Data Flows in LEO Satellite-Terrestrial Network","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2019.1900138","article-title":"An ICN\/SDN-Based Network Architecture and Efficient Content Retrieval for Future Satellite-Terrestrial Integrated Networks","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2017.2732343","article-title":"SERvICE: A software defined framework for integrated space-terrestrial satellite communication","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ivanov, A., Tonchev, K., Poulkov, V., Manolova, A., and Neshov, N.N. (2022). Graph-Based Resource Allocation for Integrated Space and Terrestrial Communications. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155778"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2021.12.015","article-title":"Graph-based deep learning for communication networks: A survey","volume":"185","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Liu, M., Li, J., and Lu, H. (2021). Routing in small satellite networks: A GNN-based learning approach. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Ran, Y., and Zhao, L. (2021, January 25\u201327). GRouting: Dynamic Routing for LEO Satellite Networks with Graph-based Deep Reinforcement Learning. Proceedings of the 2021 4th International Conference on Hot Information-Centric Networking (HotICN), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/HotICN53262.2021.9680855"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113003","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2996740","article-title":"Routing Strategy of Integrated Satellite-Terrestrial Network Based on Hyperbolic Geometry","volume":"8","author":"Lv","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2014.2345392","article-title":"Reliable topology design in time-evolving delay-tolerant networks with unreliable links","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2016.04.007","article-title":"Traffic-aware contact plan design for disruption-tolerant space sensor networks","volume":"47","author":"Fraire","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ad. Hoc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2451","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2017.2685383","article-title":"Mission aware contact plan design in resource-limited small satellite networks","volume":"65","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2018.2832779","article-title":"Channel-aware mission scheduling in broadband data relay satellite networks","volume":"36","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, H., Li, D., Liu, M., Han, G., Huang, W., and Xu, C. (2020, January 10\u201312). A Hybrid Routing Algorithm in Terrestrial-Satellite Integrated Network. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications in China, Chongqing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCC49849.2020.9238984"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2013.2244929","article-title":"A graph-based cooperative scheduling scheme for vehicular networks","volume":"62","author":"Zheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2016, October 03). Satellite Tool Kit. Available online: https:\/\/softadvice.informer.com\/Satellite_Tool_Kit_10.html."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2019.2917681","article-title":"On the Use of ON\/OFF Traffic Models for Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Wireless Networks","volume":"23","author":"Marvi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2002.804176","article-title":"Adaptive routing for packet-oriented intersatellite link networks: Performance in various traffic scenarios","volume":"1","author":"Mohorcic","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9124\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:25:57Z","timestamp":1760145957000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9124"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22239124"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22239124","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]}}}