{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T11:58:07Z","timestamp":1770465487168,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004607","name":"Guangxi Natural Science Foundation Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018GXNSFAA294056"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018GXNSFAA294056"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004607","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to realize the automatic classification of internal defects for non-contact nondestructive testing of concrete, a concrete multi-type defect classification algorithm based on the mixed strategy slime mold algorithm support vector machine (MSSMA-SVM) was proposed. The concrete surface\u2019s vibration signal was obtained using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) for four classification targets for no defect, segregation, cavity, and foreign matter concrete classification targets. The wavelet packet transform (WPT) decomposes the detected signals to get information on different frequency bands. The energy ratio change rate, energy ratio, and wavelet packet singular entropy of each node after the WPT were used as the feature input of MSSMA-SVM. The experimental results show that the designed MSSMA-SVM classifier can accurately detect the type, which provides a practical algorithm for classifying concrete defects by laser vibration measurement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T04:05:39Z","timestamp":1669349139000},"page":"9145","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Concrete Multi-Type Defect Classification Algorithm Based on MSSMA-SVM"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Xu","family":"Tian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Optical Communication, School of Information and Communication, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Ao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Optical Communication, School of Information and Communication, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}]},{"given":"Zizhu","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 322099, China"}]},{"given":"Bijian","family":"Jian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Optical Communication, School of Information and Communication, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}]},{"given":"Chunbo","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Optical Communication, School of Information and Communication, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin 541004, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, S.F., Zhao, Y.H., Qin, T., An, C., and Ge, S. (2018, January 18\u201321). Study on the leakage of the clay dam using Ground penetrating radar and Electromagnetic method. Proceedings of the 2018 17th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Rapperswil, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICGPR.2018.8441571"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"367","article-title":"A Linear Prediction and Support Vector Regression-Based Debonding Detection Method Using Step-Frequency Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"16","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4215","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2961772","article-title":"On the Use of Lateral Wave for the Interlayer Debonding Detec-ting in an Asphalt Airport Pavement Using a Multistatic GPR System","volume":"58","author":"Zou","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32728","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2900658","article-title":"Edge Detection of High-Voltage Porcelain Insulators in Infrared Image Using Dual Parity Morphological Gradients","volume":"7","author":"Yin","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3390\/instruments8020035","article-title":"Defect detection method of automobile cylinder parts based on infrared nondestructive testing","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Qing, J.T., and Wei, M.F. (2020, January 25\u201327). Numerical Simulation of Linear Frequency Modulation Infrared Thermal Wave Detection for GFRP\/Nomex Honeycomb Sandwich Structure. Proceedings of the 2020 5th International Conference on Mechanical, Control and Computer Engineering (ICMCCE), Harbin, China."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2015.09.005","article-title":"Ultrasonic measurements of undamaged concrete layer thickness in a deteriorated concrete structure","volume":"77","author":"Demcenko","year":"2016","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"85","article-title":"Nondestructive Testing with Infrared Thermography","volume":"34","author":"Meola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infrared Thermogr. Eval. Aerosp. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rhim, H.C., Kim, D.Y., Cho, C.S., and Kim, D.H. (2020). Effect of Steel Plates on Estimation of the Compressive Strength of Concrete via Ultrasonic Testing. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13040887"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2018.01.006","article-title":"Application of Ultrasonic Waves Towards the Inspection of Similar and Dissimilar Friction Stir Welded Joints","volume":"225","author":"Tarraf","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"938","article-title":"Continuous scanning laser vibration test methodfor ODS of thin-walled cylindrical structure","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Power."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2020.04.018","article-title":"Extension of continuous scanning laser Doppler vibrometry measurement for complex structures with curved surfaces","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2021.103977","article-title":"Applicability of non-contact inspection using laser ablation-induced vibration in a reinforced concrete tunnel lining","volume":"113","author":"Yasuda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2020.103460","article-title":"Detection and characteristics estimation of defects in concrete structures using laser ablation-induced vibration","volume":"103","author":"Yasuda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sugimoto, K., Sugimoto, T., Utagawa, N., and Kuroda, C. (2018, January 22\u201325). Detection Effect of Resonance Frequency of Both Laser Doppler Vibrometer and Internal Defect of Concrete Structure by Spatial Spectral Entropy. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS), Kobe, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2018.8580050"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4190682","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/4190682","article-title":"A Novel Approach for Automatic Detection of Concrete Surface Voids Using Image Texture Analysis and History-Based Adaptive Differential Evolution Optimized Support Vector Machine","volume":"2020","author":"Hoang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12039","article-title":"Defect Detection in Reinforced Concrete Using Random Neural Architectures","volume":"29","author":"Butcher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9284","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3049448","article-title":"Defect Recognition in Concrete Ultrasonic Detection Based on Wavelet Packet Transform and Stochastic Configuration Networks","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0142o\u0144ski, M., Schabowicz, K., and Krawczyk, E. (2020). Detection of Flaws in Concrete Using Ultrasonic Tomography and Convolutional Neural Networks. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13071557"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e635","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.635","article-title":"Ultrasonic based concrete defects identification via wavelet packet transform and GA-BP neural network","volume":"7","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Peer. J. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"761","article-title":"Concrete defect detection based on multi-resolution singular entropy","volume":"29","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Syst. Simul."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119761","article-title":"Detection of subsurface voids in concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) structure using percussion approach","volume":"262","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1049\/el.2020.1574","article-title":"Defect classification based on wavelet packet energy through pulsed alternating current field measurement technique","volume":"56","author":"Ge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"101","article-title":"Singularity spectrum method for detecting weak signals under chaotic background","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chittilappilly, A.J., and Subramaniam, K. (2017, January 6\u20137). SVM based defect detection for industrial applications. Proceedings of the 2017 4th International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACCS.2017.8014696"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2020.03.055","article-title":"Slime mould algorithm: A new method for stochastic optimization","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210886","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3039602","article-title":"Influence of Initializing Krill Herd Algorithm with Low Discrepancy Sequences","volume":"8","author":"Agushaka","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Acess"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1384","article-title":"Improved bat algorithm based on Gaussian disturbance and exponential decreasing strategy","volume":"37","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Res. Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174465","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2953972","article-title":"The Optimal Wavelet Basis Function Selection in Feature Extraction of Motor Imagery Electroencephalogram Based on Wavelet Packet Transformation","volume":"99","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advengsoft.2013.12.007","article-title":"Grey Wolf Optimizer","volume":"69","author":"Mirjalili","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Softw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advengsoft.2016.01.008","article-title":"The Whale Optimization Algorithm","volume":"95","author":"Mirjalili","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Softw."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2015.07.006","article-title":"Moth-flame optimization algorithm: A novel nature-inspired heuristic paradigm","volume":"89","author":"Mirjalili","year":"2015","journal-title":"Knowl. Based Syst."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9145\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:26:32Z","timestamp":1760145992000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9145"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22239145"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22239145","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]}}}