{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T09:33:01Z","timestamp":1769851981256,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,27]],"date-time":"2022-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) often experience difficulties with handwriting legibility and speed. This study investigates the relationship between handwriting and upper limb kinematics to characterize movement patterns of children with DCD and typically developing (TD) children. Methods: 30 children with and without DCD matched for age, gender, and parent education were compared across handwriting abilities using a standardized handwriting assessment of both copied and dictated tasks (A-A Handwriting). The 3D motion capture system (Qualysis) was used to analyze upper limb kinematics and characterize movement patterns during handwriting and contrasted with written output. Results: Children with DCD wrote fewer legible letters in both copying and dictation. Children with DCD also showed poor automatization of key writing concepts. Atypical wrist postures were associated with reduced legibility for children with DCD (F (1,27) 4.71, p = 0.04, p-\u03b72 = 0.15); whereas for TD children, better legibility was associated with greater variations in movement speed, particularly of the wrist (rho = \u22120.578, p &lt; 0.05). Conclusion: Results reflect different movement parameters influencing handwriting in children with DCD. An improved understanding of the movement characteristics during handwriting of these children may assist intervention design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239224","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T08:13:09Z","timestamp":1669623189000},"page":"9224","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Upper Limb Kinematics of Handwriting among Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Amani","family":"Abu-Ata","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Health Professions, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1129-8071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dido","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, School of Health and Welfare, J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping University, 553 18 J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ran","family":"Sopher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Health Professions, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7547-4150","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sigal","family":"Portnoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Health Professions, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0509-6059","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Navah Z.","family":"Ratzon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Health Professions, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"402","article-title":"The Power of Writing in Children","volume":"114","author":"Arighi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Argent. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Velay, J.L., and Longcamp, M. (2020). Motor Skills and Written Language Perception: Contribution of Writing Knowledge to Visual Recognition of Graphic Shapes. Language and Action in Cognitive Neuroscience, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.60.4.461","article-title":"Handwriting Instruction in Elementary Schools","volume":"60","author":"Asher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2002.016303","article-title":"Are Referrals to Occupational Therapy for Developmental Coordination Disorder Appropriate?","volume":"89","author":"Dunford","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.60.4.451","article-title":"Handwriting Difficulties in Primary School Children: A Search for Underlying Mechanisms","volume":"60","author":"Volman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2017.08.021","article-title":"Development of Motor Imagery and Anticipatory Action Planning in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder\u2014A Longitudinal Approach","volume":"55","author":"Adams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00108","article-title":"Modeling the Maturation of Grip Selection Planning and Action Representation: Insights from Typical and Atypical Motor Development","volume":"7","author":"Fuelscher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14612","article-title":"Motor Imagery and Action Observation for Predictive Control in Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"62","author":"Steenbergen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.07.033","article-title":"An Examination of Writing Pauses in the Handwriting of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"35","author":"Prunty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1177\/0308022619885046","article-title":"Grip Strength and Pen Pressure Are Not Key Contributors to Handwriting Difficulties in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"83","author":"Prunty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2005.12.003","article-title":"Tier 1 and Tier 2 Early Intervention for Handwriting and Composing","volume":"44","author":"Berninger","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sch. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03478.x","article-title":"Characterization of Motor Control in Handwriting Difficulties in Children with or without Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"52","author":"Chang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2016.07.003","article-title":"Cognitive-Motor Interference during Fine and Gross Motor Tasks in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)","volume":"57","author":"Schott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bernstein, N. (1967). Coordination and Regulation of Movement, Pergamon Press Ltd."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-77064-2_3","article-title":"Towards Testable Neuromechanical Control Architectures for Running","volume":"629","author":"Revzen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3076","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0500199102","article-title":"Shared and Specific Muscle Synergies in Natural Motor Behaviors","volume":"102","author":"Bizzi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2008.02.009","article-title":"Does Subtype of Developmental Coordination Disorder Count: Is There a Differential Effect on Outcome Following Intervention?","volume":"27","author":"Green","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2006.02.004","article-title":"Goals and Means in Action Observation: A Computational Approach","volume":"19","author":"Cuijpers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Barnett, A., Henderson, S., Scheib, B., and Schulz, J. (2022, January 02). The Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH). Manual. Available online: https:\/\/uhra.herts.ac.uk\/handle\/2299\/11814?show=full."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1123\/jmld.2012-0001","article-title":"Developmental Characteristics in Cursive and Printed Letter-Writing for School-Age Children","volume":"2","author":"Bo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mot. Learn. Dev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.04.027","article-title":"Examining the Relationship between Motor Assessments and Handwriting Consistency in Children with and without Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"35","author":"Bo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1177\/0308022616650903","article-title":"The Impact of Handwriting Difficulties on Compositional Quality in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"79","author":"Prunty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2012.01.008","article-title":"A Validation Study of the Keyboard Personal Computer Style Instrument (K-PeCS) for Use with Children","volume":"43","author":"Green","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022602400621","article-title":"The Revised Conners\u2019 Parent Rating Scale (CPRS-R): Factor Structure, Reliability, and Criterion Validity","volume":"26","author":"Sitarenios","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Conners, C.K. (2001). Conners\u2019 Rating Scales Revised, Multi-Health Systems Inc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1080\/01942630902784761","article-title":"Psychometric Properties of the Revised Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire","volume":"29","author":"Wilson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Occup. Ther. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henderson, S., Sugden, D., and Barnett, A. (2007). Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Movement ABC-2, The Psychological Corporation. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t55281-000"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.2001.93.1.275","article-title":"Reliability and Concurrent Validity of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children","volume":"93","author":"Croce","year":"2001","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Erez, N., and Parush, S. (1999). The Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation 2 nd ed., Hebrew University of Jerusalem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s00776-009-1332-0","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Motion Analysis of Compensatory Movements in Patients with Radioulnar Synostosis Performing Activities of Daily Living","volume":"14","author":"Kasten","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Howell, D.C. (1995). Fundamental Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences, Duxbury Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00828.x","article-title":"Eta Squared, Partial Eta Squared, and Misreporting of Effect Size in Communication Research","volume":"28","author":"Levine","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Miles, J., and Shevlin, M. (2001). Applying Regression & Correlation: A Guide for Students and Researchers, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809455","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.809455","article-title":"Behavioral and Neuroimaging Research on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): A Combined Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Recent Findings","volume":"13","author":"Cole","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390802484805","article-title":"Is Developmental Coordination Disorder a Motor Imagery Deficit?","volume":"31","author":"Deconinck","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00543.2018","article-title":"Poor Estimates of Motor Variability Are Associated with Longer Grooved Pegboard Times for Middle-Aged and Older Adults","volume":"121","author":"Hamilton","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14646","article-title":"Cognitive and Motor Function in Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"62","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2011.01.026","article-title":"Changes in Kinetics and Kinematics of Handwriting during a Prolonged Writing Task in Children with and without Dysgraphia","volume":"32","author":"Kushki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(93)90010-O","article-title":"Neuromotor Noise and Poor Handwriting in Children","volume":"82","author":"Portier","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2007.02.003","article-title":"Procedural Learning Difficulties: Reuniting the Developmental Disorders?","volume":"30","author":"Nicolson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.04.008","article-title":"The Effect of Motor Load on Planning and Inhibition in Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"35","author":"Pratt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2015.09.032","article-title":"Developmental Coordination Disorder: Core Sensori-Motor Deficits, Neurobiology and Etiology","volume":"79","author":"Gomez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2012.06.006","article-title":"Age-Related Changes in Motor Imagery from Early Childhood to Adulthood: Probing the Internal Representation of Speed-Accuracy Trade-Offs","volume":"32","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2013.02.008","article-title":"Neural Underpinnings of Impaired Predictive Motor Timing in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"34","author":"Debrabant","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2016.07.025","article-title":"Neural Changes Associated to Procedural Learning and Automatization Process in Developmental Coordination Disorder and\/or Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"21","author":"Biotteau","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelso, J.S. (2009). Synergies: Atoms of Brain and Behavior. Progress in Motor Control, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-77064-2_5"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199001000-00010","article-title":"No Adjustments Are Needed for Multiple Comparisons","volume":"1","author":"Rothman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Epidemiology"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9224\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:27:45Z","timestamp":1760146065000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9224"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,27]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22239224"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22239224","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,27]]}}}