{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T07:07:45Z","timestamp":1770275265851,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006602","name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FA8650-15-2-5401"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA8650-15-2-5401"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Composite polymers have become widely used in industries such as the aerospace, automobile, and civil construction industries. Continuous monitoring is essential to optimize the composite components\u2019 performance and durability. This paper describes the concept of a distributed fiber optic smart textile (DFOST) embedded into a composite panel that can be implemented during the fabrication process of bridges, planes, or vehicles without damaging the integrity of the composite. The smart textile used an embroidery method to create DFOST for easy installation between composite laminates. It also allows different layout patterns to provide two- or three-dimensional measurements. The DFOST system can then measure strain, temperature, and displacement changes, providing critical information for structural assessment. The DFOST was interrogated by using an optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR). It could measure strain variation during the dynamic and static test with a spatial resolution of 2 mm and a minimum strain resolution of 10 \u03bc\u03f5. This paper focuses on the study of strain measurement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239262","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T08:43:03Z","timestamp":1669624983000},"page":"9262","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Fiber Optic Sensing Textile for Strain Monitoring in Composite Substrates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5941-5719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andres","family":"Biondi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"}]},{"given":"Lidan","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"}]},{"given":"Balaji","family":"Gopalan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Saint-Gobain Research North America, Northborough, MA 01532, USA"}]},{"given":"Jackson","family":"Ivey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Saint-Gobain Research North America, Northborough, MA 01532, USA"}]},{"given":"Camila","family":"Garces","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Saint-Gobain Research North America, Northborough, MA 01532, USA"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Mitchell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Boeing Company, Huntsville, AL 35808, USA"}]},{"given":"John D.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Boeing Company, Huntsville, AL 35808, USA"}]},{"given":"Xingwei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02749982","article-title":"Composite materials for aerospace applications","volume":"22","author":"Mangalgiri","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bull. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10443-012-9258-7","article-title":"Manufacturing aspects of advanced polymer composites for automotive applications","volume":"20","author":"Friedrich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollaway, L.C. (2001). Advanced Polymer Composites and Polymers in the Civil Infrastructure, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008043661-6\/50011-5"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keller, T. (2003). Overview of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers in Bridge Construction. SED 7. IAfBaSE (IABSE).","DOI":"10.2749\/sed007"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Njuguna, J. (2016). Lightweight Composite Structures in Transport: Design, Manufacturing, Analysis and Performance, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sutherland, H., Beattie, A., Hansche, B., Musial, W., Allread, J., Johnson, J., and Summers, M. (1994). The Application of Non-Destructive Techniques to the Testing of A Wind Turbine Blade, Sandia National Labs.. Technical Report.","DOI":"10.2172\/10184661"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1509769","article-title":"Acoustic emission monitoring of small wind turbine blades","volume":"124","author":"Joosse","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Sol. Energy Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Anastassopoulos, A., Kouroussis, D., Nikolaidis, V., Proust, A., Dutton, A., Blanch, M., Jones, L., Vionis, P., Lekou, D., and van Delft, D. (2003). Structural integrity evaluation of wind turbine blades using pattern recognition analysis on acoustic emission data. J. Acoust. Emiss., 20."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Avdelidis, N., Almond, D., Ibarra-Castanedo, C., Bendada, A., Kenny, S., and Maldague, X. (2006, January 18\u201319). Structural integrity assessment of materials by thermography. Proceedings of the Conference Damage in Composite Materials CDCM, Stuttgart, Germany."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/09349840109409687","article-title":"Noncontact air-coupled guided wave ultrasonics for detection of thinning defects in aluminum plates","volume":"13","author":"Tuzzeo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Res. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1108\/SR-05-2013-678","article-title":"Recent developments in MEMS sensors: A review of applications, markets and technologies","volume":"33","author":"Bogue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Liu, X., Shi, Q., He, T., Sun, Z., Guo, X., Liu, W., Sulaiman, O.B., Dong, B., and Lee, C. (2020). Development trends and perspectives of future sensors and MEMS\/NEMS. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11010007"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gli\u0161i\u0107, B., and Inaudi, D. (2007). Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring, Wiley Online Library.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470517819"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Measures, R.M. (2001). Structural Monitoring With Fiber Optic Technology, Academic Press Inc.","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/12\/9\/708"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Azzawi, A. (2017). Fibre Optics: Principles and Advanced Practices, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780849382949-40"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.3390\/s130201836","article-title":"Distributed temperature and strain discrimination with stimulated Brillouin scattering and Rayleigh backscatter in an optical fiber","volume":"13","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-335-2015","article-title":"Fiber optic distributed temperature sensing for the determination of air temperature","volume":"8","author":"Slingerland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.129853","article-title":"Distributed fiber optic pH sensors using sol-gel silica based sensitive materials","volume":"340","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Jin, B., Bai, Q., Wang, Y., Wang, D., and Wang, Y. (2016). Distributed fiber-optic sensors for vibration detection. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16081164"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.06.034","article-title":"Recent developments in fibre optic shape sensing","volume":"128","author":"Amanzadeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Piccolo, A., Delepine-Lesoille, S., Bumbieler, F., Zghondi, J., Lecieux, Y., Leduc, D., Teixeira, P., and Gay, O. (2018, January 29\u201331). Tunnel monitoring: Performances of several innovative shape sensing systems. Proceedings of the TINCE 2018\u2014Technological Innovations in Nuclear Civil Engineering, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2019325","article-title":"Submillimeter crack detection with Brillouin-based fiber-optic sensors","volume":"9","author":"Ravet","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X06073171","article-title":"Analysis of Brillouin Scattering Based Fiber Optic Sensor Bonding Effects","volume":"19","author":"Brown","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"945","article-title":"Application of Brillouin scattering-based distributed optical fiber strain sensor to actual concrete piles","volume":"85","author":"Ohno","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Electron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamad, H., Bennett, P.J., Soga, K., Klar, A., and Pellow, A. (2007, January 24\u201327). Distributed optical fiber strain sensing in a secant piled wall. Proceedings of the 7th FMGM 2007: Field Measurements in Geomechanics, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/40940(307)81"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.5194\/jsss-7-601-2018","article-title":"Comparison between different fiber coatings and adhesives on steel surfaces for distributed optical strain measurements based on Rayleigh backscattering","volume":"7","author":"Weisbrich","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sensors Sens. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.12.078","article-title":"Distributed modular temperature-strain sensor based on optical fiber embedded in laminated composites","volume":"168","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109099","article-title":"Strain and displacement measurement based on distributed fibre optic sensing (DFOS) system integrated with FRP composite sandwich panel","volume":"175","author":"Kulpa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajan, G., and Prusty, B.G. (2016). Structural Health Monitoring of Composite Structures Using Fiber Optic Methods, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315369815"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramakrishnan, M., Rajan, G., Semenova, Y., and Farrell, G. (2016). Overview of fiber optic sensor technologies for strain\/temperature sensing applications in composite materials. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010099"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"845","article-title":"Experimental Investigations in Embedded Sensing for Structural Health Monitoring of Composite Components in Aerospace Vehicles","volume":"45097","author":"Ghoshal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Adapt. Struct. Intell. Syst. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9226","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2989163","article-title":"Quasi-distributed fiber optic temperature and humidity sensor system for monitoring of grain storage in granaries","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2004.04.009","article-title":"Embedded fiber Bragg grating sensor for internal strain measurements in polymeric materials","volume":"43","author":"Botsis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"333","article-title":"FBG based in situ characterization of residual strains in FDM process","volume":"Volume 8","author":"Kantaros","year":"2014","journal-title":"Residual Stress, Thermomechanics &Infrared Imaging, Hybrid Techniques and Inverse Problems"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618377","article-title":"Fiber grating sensors","volume":"15","author":"Kersey","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Real-time quasi-distributed fiber optic sensor based on resonance frequency mapping","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.31.001603","article-title":"Direct inscription of Bragg gratings in coated fibers by an infrared femtosecond laser","volume":"31","author":"Martinez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"174","article-title":"Trends and future of fiber Bragg grating sensing technologies: Tailored draw tower gratings (DTGs)","volume":"9141","author":"Lindner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Born, M., and Wolf, E. (2013). Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1109\/50.400684","article-title":"Development of a distributed sensing technique using Brillouin scattering","volume":"13","author":"Horiguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2022.102876","article-title":"Pipeline structural health monitoring using distributed fiber optic sensing textile","volume":"70","author":"Biondi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3296","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2614835","article-title":"Dynamic optical fiber sensing with brillouin optical time domain reflectometry: Application to pipeline vibration monitoring","volume":"35","author":"Maraval","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenato, L. (2017). A review of distributed fibre optic sensors for geo-hydrological applications. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7090896"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tws.2018.08.024","article-title":"Buckling detection of an omega-stiffened aircraft composite panel using distributed fibre optic sensors","volume":"132","author":"Iglesias","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thin-Walled Struct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:4(264)","article-title":"Distributed strain measurement in steel bridge with fiber optic sensors: Validation through diagnostic load test","volume":"22","author":"Matta","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Perform. Constr. Facil."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gli\u0161i\u0107, B., Posenato, D., and Inaudi, D. (2007, January 20\u201322). Integrity monitoring of an old steel bridge using fiber optic distributed sensors based on Brillouin scattering. Proceedings of the Nondestructive Characterization for Composite Materials, Aerospace Engineering, Civil Infrastructure, and Homeland Security, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.716055"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Biondi, A.M., Guo, X., Zhou, J., Tang, Q., Ghandi, H., Goplan, B., Hanna, T., Ivey, J., Yu, T., and Wang, X. (2021, January 22\u201326). Optical fiber sensing textile for temperature and strain distributed measurement. Proceedings of the Nondestructive Characterization and Monitoring of Advanced Materials, Aerospace, Civil Infrastructure, and Transportation XV. International Society for Optics and Photonics, Online."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.000666","article-title":"High resolution optical frequency domain reflectometry for characterization of components and assemblies","volume":"13","author":"Soller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kreger, S.T., Gifford, D.K., Froggatt, M.E., Soller, B.J., and Wolfe, M.S. (2006). High resolution distributed strain or temperature measurements in single-and multi-mode fiber using swept-wavelength interferometry. Optical Fiber Sensors, Optical Society of America.","DOI":"10.1364\/OFS.2006.ThE42"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Froggatt, M., Gifford, D., Kreger, S., Wolfe, M., and Soller, B. (2006). Distributed strain and temperature discrimination in unaltered polarization maintaining fiber. Optical Fiber Sensors, Optical Society of America.","DOI":"10.1364\/OFS.2006.ThC5"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3721","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2019.2918379","article-title":"Performance investigation of OFDR sensing system with a wide strain measurement range","volume":"37","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9262\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:28:36Z","timestamp":1760146116000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/23\/9262"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22239262"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22239262","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]]}}}