{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:35:14Z","timestamp":1760232914086,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]],"date-time":"2022-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Industry Innovation and Science","award":["GILIII000114"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GILIII000114"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Seismic velocities and elastic moduli of rocks are known to vary significantly with applied stress, which indicates that these materials exhibit nonlinear elasticity. Monochromatic waves in nonlinear elastic media are known to generate higher harmonics and combinational frequencies. Such effects have the potential to be used for broadening the frequency band of seismic sources, characterization of the subsurface, and safety monitoring of civil engineering infrastructure. However, knowledge on nonlinear seismic effects is still scarce, which impedes the development of their practical applications. To explore the potential of nonlinear seismology, we performed three experiments: two in the field and one in the laboratory. The first field experiment used two vibroseis sources generating signals with two different monochromatic frequencies. The second field experiment used a surface orbital vibrator with two eccentric motors working at different frequencies. In both experiments, the generated wavefield was recorded in a borehole using a fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing cable. Both experiments showed combinational frequencies, harmonics, and other intermodulation products of the fundamental frequencies both on the surface and at depth. Laboratory experiments replicated the setup of the field test with vibroseis sources and showed similar nonlinear combinations of fundamental frequencies. Amplitudes of the nonlinear signals observed in the laboratory showed variation with the saturating fluid. These results confirm that nonlinear components of the wavefield propagate as body waves, are likely to generate within rock formations, and can be potentially used for reservoir fluid characterization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239382","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,2]],"date-time":"2022-12-02T03:28:04Z","timestamp":1669951684000},"page":"9382","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Evidence of Nonlinear Seismic Effects in the Earth from Downhole Distributed Acoustic Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Alexey","family":"Yurikov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2752-3528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boris","family":"Gurevich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"given":"Konstantin","family":"Tertyshnikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"given":"Maxim","family":"Lebedev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5741-8091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman","family":"Isaenkov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5938-7698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evgenii","family":"Sidenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9345-8517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sinem","family":"Yavuz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]},{"given":"Stanislav","family":"Glubokovskikh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}]},{"given":"Valeriya","family":"Shulakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIRO, Australian Resources Research Centre, 26 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia"}]},{"given":"Barry","family":"Freifeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Class VI Solutions, Inc., 711 Jean Street, Oakland, CA 94610, USA"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Correa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}]},{"given":"Todd J.","family":"Wood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}]},{"given":"Igor A.","family":"Beresnev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geological and Atmospheric Sciences, Iowa State University, 253 Science I, 2237 Osborn Dr., Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2555-6860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman","family":"Pevzner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bourbie, T., Coussy, O., and Zinszner, B. 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