{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T08:22:42Z","timestamp":1777710162207,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]],"date-time":"2022-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Dutch Research Council (NWO)","award":["P16-28 project 6"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P16-28 project 6"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Inertial measurement units (IMUs) offer the possibility to capture the lower body motions of players of outdoor team sports. However, various sources of error are present when using IMUs: the definition of the body frames, the soft tissue artefact (STA) and the orientation filter. Methods to minimize these errors are currently being used without knowing their exact influence on the various sources of errors. The goal of this study was to present a method to quantify each of the sources of error of an IMU separately. Methods: An optoelectronic system was used as a gold standard. Rigid marker clusters (RMCs) were designed to construct a rigid connection between the IMU and four markers. This allowed for the separate quantification of each of the sources of error. Ten subjects performed nine different football-specific movements, varying both in the type of movement, and in movement intensity. Results: The error of the definition of the body frames (11.3\u201318.7 deg RMSD), the STA (3.8\u20139.1 deg RMSD) and the error of the orientation filter (3.0\u201312.7 deg RMSD) were all quantified separately for each body segment. Conclusions: The error sources of IMU-based motion analysis were quantified separately. This allows future studies to quantify and optimize the effects of error reduction techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249765","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]],"date-time":"2022-12-13T03:32:32Z","timestamp":1670902352000},"page":"9765","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Quantification of Error Sources with Inertial Measurement Units in Sports"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Haye","family":"Kamstra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Erik","family":"Wilmes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, Royal Netherlands Football Association, 3707 HX Zeist, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Frans C. T.","family":"van der Helm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ancillao, A. (2018). Stereophotogrammetry in Functional Evaluation: History and Modern Protocols. Modern Functional Evaluation Methods for Muscle Strength and Gait Analysis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67437-7"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7821","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2609392","article-title":"Wearable inertial sensors for human motion analysis: A review","volume":"16","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-016-1537-2","article-title":"Validation of inertial measurement units with an optoelectronic system for whole-body motion analysis","volume":"55","author":"Mecheri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-136","article-title":"Validation of the angular measurements of a new inertial-measurement-unit based rehabilitation system: Comparison with state-of-the-art gait analysis","volume":"11","author":"Leardini","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.04.035","article-title":"Estimation of stride length in level walking using an inertial measurement unit attached to the foot: A validation of the zero velocity assumption during stance","volume":"44","author":"Peruzzi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teufl, W., Miezal, M., Taetz, B., Fr\u00f6hlich, M., and Bleser, G. (2019). Validity of inertial sensor based 3D joint kinematics of static and dynamic sport and physiotherapy specific movements. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213064"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilmes, E., de Ruiter, C.J., Bastiaansen, B.J., Zon, J.F.v., Vegter, R.J., Brink, M.S., Goedhart, E.A., Lemmink, K.A., and Savelsbergh, G.J. (2020). Inertial sensor-based motion tracking in football with movement intensity quantification. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092527"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.29.5.622","article-title":"Trunk inclination estimate during the sprint start using an inertial measurement unit: A validation study","volume":"29","author":"Bergamini","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2016-0120","article-title":"Validation of inertial measurement units for upper body kinematics","volume":"33","author":"Morrow","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morton, L., Baillie, L., and Ramirez-Iniguez, R. (2013, January 7\u20139). Pose calibrations for inertial sensors in rehabilitation applications. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 9th International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob), Lyon, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2013.6673362"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.03.004","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of accuracy and repeatability of a novel body-to-sensor calibration procedure for inertial sensor-based gait analysis","volume":"52","author":"Palermo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teufl, W., Lorenz, M., Miezal, M., Taetz, B., Fr\u00f6hlich, M., and Bleser, G. (2018). Towards inertial sensor based mobile gait analysis: Event-detection and spatio-temporal parameters. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010038"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2010.03.007","article-title":"Functionally interpretable local coordinate systems for the upper extremity using inertial & magnetic measurement systems","volume":"43","author":"Veeger","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2009.06.025","article-title":"Functional calibration procedure for 3D knee joint angle description using inertial sensors","volume":"42","author":"Favre","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2009.09.004","article-title":"Quantification of soft tissue artifact in lower limb human motion analysis: A systematic review","volume":"31","author":"Peters","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.02.004","article-title":"Standardization proposal of soft tissue artefact description for data sharing in human motion measurements","volume":"62","author":"Cereatti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madgwick, S.O., Harrison, A.J., and Vaidyanathan, A. (July, January 29). Estimation of IMU and MARG orientation using a gradient descent algorithm. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975346"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2008.12.004","article-title":"Magnetic distortion in motion labs, implications for validating inertial magnetic sensors","volume":"29","author":"Veeger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Ruiter, C.J., and van Die\u00ebn, J.H. (2019). Stride and step length obtained with inertial measurement units during maximal sprint acceleration. Sports, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports7090202"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/0268-0033(95)91394-T","article-title":"Position and orientation in space of bones during movement: Anatomical frame definition and determination","volume":"10","author":"Cappozzo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(01)00222-6","article-title":"ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion\u2014Part I: Ankle, hip, and spine","volume":"35","author":"Wu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5679","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2569160","article-title":"Magnetometer calibration using inertial sensors","volume":"16","author":"Kok","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tedaldi, D., Pretto, A., and Menegatti, E. (June, January 31). A robust and easy to implement method for IMU calibration without external equipments. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2014.6907297"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Hol, J.D. (2011). Sensor Fusion and Calibration of Inertial Sensors, Vision, Ultra-Wideband and GPS, Link\u00f6ping University Electronic Press."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"Xsens MVN: Full 6DOF human motion tracking using miniature inertial sensors","volume":"1","author":"Roetenberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Xsens Motion Technol. BV Tech. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(03)00033-X","article-title":"Validity and comparisons of tibiofemoral orientations and displacement using a femoral tracking device during early to mid stance of walking","volume":"19","author":"Houck","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S551","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(07)70541-9","article-title":"Comparison of skin error reduction techniques for skeletal motion analysis","volume":"40","author":"Gao","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7585","DOI":"10.3182\/20140824-6-ZA-1003.01173","article-title":"Experimental comparison of sensor fusion algorithms for attitude estimation","volume":"47","author":"Cavallo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IFAC Proc. Vol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/24\/9765\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:40:17Z","timestamp":1760146817000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/24\/9765"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s22249765"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22249765","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]]}}}