{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T12:22:05Z","timestamp":1768566125110,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]],"date-time":"2022-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union (ERDF\u2014European Regional Development Fund)","award":["ZS\/2018\/10\/95201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZS\/2018\/10\/95201"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The emergence of point-of-care (POC) testing has lately been promoted to deliver rapid, reliable medical tests in critical life-threatening situations, especially in resource-limited settings. Recently, POC tests have witnessed further advances due to the technological revolution in smartphones. Smartphones are integrated as reliable readers to the POC results to improve their quantitative detection. This has enabled the use of more complex medical tests by the patient him\/herself at home without the need for professional staff and sophisticated equipment. Cytokines, the important immune system biomarkers, are still measured today using the time-consuming Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), which can only be performed in specially equipped laboratories. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the current development of POC technologies suitable for the home testing of cytokines by conducting a PRISMA literature review. Then, we classify the collected technologies as inexpensive and expensive depending on whether the cytokines can be measured easily at home or not. Additionally, we propose a machine learning-based solution to even increase the efficiency of the cytokine measurement by leveraging the cytokines that can be inexpensively measured to predict the values of the expensive ones. In total, we identify 12 POCs for cytokine quantification. We find that Interleukin 1\u03b2 (IL-1\u03b2), Interleukin 3 (IL-3), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), Interleukin 8 (IL-8) and Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) can be measured with inexpensive POC technology, namely at home. We build machine-learning models to predict the values of other expensive cytokines such as Interferon-gamma (IFN-\u03b3), IL-10, IL-2, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-4 and IL-5 by relying on the identified inexpensive ones in addition to the age of the individual. We evaluate to what extent the built machine learning models can use the inexpensive cytokines to predict the expensive ones on 351 healthy subjects from the public dataset 10k Immunomes. The models for IFN-\u03b3 show high results for the coefficient of determination: R2 = 0.743. The results for IL-5 and IL-4 are also promising, whereas the predictive model of IL-10 achieves only R2 = 0.126. Lastly, the results demonstrate the vital role of TNF and IL-6 in the immune system due to its high importance in the predictions of all the other expensive cytokines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249785","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]],"date-time":"2022-12-14T03:21:52Z","timestamp":1670988112000},"page":"9785","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Assessment of Immune Status Using Inexpensive Cytokines: A Literature Review and Learning Approaches"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4323-0688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noor","family":"Jamaludeen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Knowledge Management & Discovery Lab, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juliane","family":"Lehmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Knowledge Management & Discovery Lab, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Beyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Knowledge Management & Discovery Lab, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2584-7932","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katrin","family":"Vogel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Pediatrics, University Hospital, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9118-0884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mandy","family":"Pierau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Pediatrics, University Hospital, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6838-3568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monika","family":"Brunner-Weinzierl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Pediatrics, University Hospital, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1828-5759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Myra","family":"Spiliopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Knowledge Management & Discovery Lab, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12820","article-title":"Smartphone-based clinical diagnostics: Towards democratization of evidence-based health care","volume":"285","author":"Neumann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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