{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:39:45Z","timestamp":1760233185803,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education and Scienc","award":["0212\/SBAD\/0569"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0212\/SBAD\/0569"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The paper presents the results of the monitoring process of the charging of an electric vehicle battery pack. Battery pack charging with a capacity of 58kWh was monitored in a single-phase 230V\/50Hz circuit. The slow charging system used was configured to obtain a current of 10A. During monitoring, the focus was on the recognition of the charging, considering the impact of this process on power quality and, consequently, on the reliability of electrical machines. Research results show that the monitored charges are one-, two-, or three-stage processes. The variations in the currents, power, and higher harmonic contents were observed. The effects of such variations depend on the properties of the power grid at the point of connection of the charging system. Knowledge of the variation of the voltages, currents, and active and reactive power allows for the determination of the requirements of the measuring equipment used for charging the monitoring, including the selection of discrimination\/averaging time of monitored quantities. The research results also indicate the need for continuous monitoring of the power quality in the power supply circuit of electrical loads, e.g., electrical machines. Continuous monitoring supports the diagnostics of electrical machines and allows the appropriate measures to increase their reliability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010141","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,27]],"date-time":"2022-12-27T02:53:11Z","timestamp":1672109591000},"page":"141","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Monitoring Single-Phase LV Charging of Electric Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8746-7767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Kuwa\u0142ek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo Street, No. 3a, 60-965 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8780-7605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grzegorz","family":"Wiczy\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo Street, No. 3a, 60-965 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021, September 01). 6th CEER Benchmarking Report on All the Quality of Electricity and Gas Supply 2016. Available online: https:\/\/www.ceer.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mozaffari, M., Doshi, K., and Yilmaz, Y.C. (2022). Real-Time Detection and Classification of Power Quality Disturbances. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207958"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valtierra-Rodriguez, M., Rivera-Guillen, J.R., Basurto-Hurtado, J.A., De-Santiago-Perez, J.J., Granados-Lieberman, D., and Amezquita-Sanchez, J.P.c. (2020). Convolutional Neural Network and Motor Current Signature Analysis during the Transient State for Detection of Broken Rotor Bars in Induction Motors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133721"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2009.05.008","article-title":"Effect of power quality on windings temperature of marine induction motors. Part II: Results of investigations and recommendations for related regulations","volume":"50","author":"Gnacinski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1109\/TEC.2019.2929534","article-title":"Vibration of Induction Machine Supplied With Voltage Containing Subharmonics and Interharmonics","volume":"34","author":"Gnacinski","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Energy Convers."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Holopainen, T.P., Jorg, P., Niiranen, J., and Andrea, D. (2013, January 1\u20133). Electric Motors and Drives in Torsional Vibration Analysis and Design. Proceedings of the 42nd Turbomachinery Symposium, College Station, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez-Abreu, A.D., Osornio-Rios, R.A., Jaen-Cuellar, A.Y., Delgado-Prieto, M., Antonino-Daviu, J.A., and Karlis, A. (2022). Advances in Power Quality Analysis Techniques for Electrical Machines and Drives: A Review. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15051909"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Fuchs, E., and Masoum, M. (2022). Power Quality in Power Systems, Electrical Machines, and Power-Electronic Drives, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, F.J.T.E., Baoming, G., and de Almeida, A.T. (2015, January 5\u20138). Reliability and operation of high-efficiency induction motors. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE\/IAS 51st Industrial & Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference (I&CPS), Calgary, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPS.2015.7266412"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2020.2965859","article-title":"Derating of Induction Motors Due to Power Quality Issues Considering the Motor Efficiency Class","volume":"56","author":"Donolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijepes.2019.04.009","article-title":"The effects of voltage subharmonics on cage induction machine","volume":"111","author":"Gnacinski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Powe Energy Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gnacinski, P., Hallmann, D., Muc, A., Klimczak, P., and Peplinski, M. (2022). Induction Motor Supplied with Voltage Containing Symmetrical Subharmonics and Interharmonics. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15207712"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chauhan, S., and Singh, S.B. (2019, January 7\u20138). Effects of Voltage Unbalance and Harmonics on 3-Phase Induction Motor During the Condition of Undervoltage and Overvoltage. Proceedings of the 2019 6th International Conference on Signal Processing and Integrated Networks (SPIN), Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPIN.2019.8711753"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gnacinski, P., Hallmann, D., Klimczak, P., Muc, A., and Peplinski, M. (2021). Effects of Voltage Interharmonics on Cage Induction Motors. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14051218"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1071\/SP06007","article-title":"Impact of voltage unbalance on the performance of three-phase induction motor","volume":"24","author":"Kini","year":"2006","journal-title":"S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gumilar, L., Afandi, A.N., and Faiz, M.R. (2021, January 14\u201315). Starting Induction Motor at Different Voltage Levels in the Electrical Power System. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Electrical and Information Technology (IEIT), Malang, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEIT53149.2021.9587354"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousa, V., Hernandez, H., Quispe, E.C., Gomez, J.R., and Viego, P.R. (June, January 31). Analysis of harmonic distortion generated by PWM motor drives. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Workshop on Power Electronics and Power Quality Applications (PEPQA), Bogota, Colombia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEPQA.2017.7981644"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Masoum, M., and Fuchs, E. (2015). Power Quality in Power Systems, Electrical Machines, and Power-Electronic Drives, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"43","article-title":"Advantages and disadvantages of using multi-pulse systems in the electric drive of hoisting machines","volume":"96","author":"Siostrzonek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prz. Elektrotech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langella, R., Testa, A., Vendemia, V., and Drapela, J. (June, January 29). New Comprehensive Analytical Model of Single-Phase AC\/DC Diode Rectifiers in the Presence of Interharmonics in Supply Voltage. Proceedings of the 2022 20th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP 2022), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHQP53011.2022.9808466"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crotti, G., Chen, Y., \u00c7ayci, H., D\u2019Avanzo, G., Landi, C., Letizia, P.S., Luiso, M., Mohns, E., Mu\u00f1oz, F., and Styblikova, R. (2022). How Instrument Transformers Influence Power Quality Measurements: A Proposal of Accuracy Verification Tests. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155847"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.24295\/CPSSTPEA.2018.00015","article-title":"Power quality improvement using VLLMS based adaptive shunt active filter","volume":"3","author":"Ray","year":"2018","journal-title":"CPSS Trans. Power Electron. Appl."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alali, M.A.E., Shtessel, Y.B., Barbot, J.P., and Di Gennaro, S. (2022). Sensor Effects in LCL-Type Grid-Connected Shunt Active Filters Control Using Higher-Order Sliding Mode Control Techniques. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197516"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"3","article-title":"Review of Shunt Active Power Filters for Compensation","volume":"3","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Curr. Trends"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"Design and Implementation of an Automatic High-Performance Voltage Stabilizer","volume":"2","author":"Adabara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052050","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2094\/5\/052050","article-title":"Analysis and study of energy efficiency by the operation of a voltage stabilizer","volume":"2094","author":"Karimov","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2017.10.207","article-title":"Improvement in Power Quality using Hybrid Power Filters based on RLS Algorithm","volume":"138","author":"Das","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"568","article-title":"Power Quality Improvement in Distribution System using ANN Based Shunt Active Power Filter","volume":"5","author":"Jarupula","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Power Electron. Drive Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiczynski, G. (2012, January 17\u201320). Diagnostic capabilities of voltage fluctuation indices\u2014A case study. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 15th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power, Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHQP.2012.6381293"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Edelstein, S. (2021). Study suggests EV drivers are more satisfied with wall chargers vs mobile cords. Green Car Reports, Internet Brands."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2003.813873","article-title":"Impact of EV battery chargers on the power quality of distribution systems","volume":"18","author":"Gomez","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2004.836615","article-title":"Harmonic interaction between a large number of distributed power inverters and the distribution network","volume":"19","author":"Enslin","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pankaj, S., Khalid, M.R., Saad Alam, M., Jamil Asghar, M.S., and Hameed, S. (2022, January 23\u201325). Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and their Impact on the Power Quality of Utility Grid. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Decision Aid Sciences and Applications (DASA), Chiangrai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/DASA54658.2022.9765054"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karmaker, A.K., Roy, S., and Ahmed, M.R. (2019, January 7\u20139). Analysis of the Impact of Electric Vehicle Charging Station on Power Quality Issues. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE), Cox\u2019s Bazar, Bangladesh.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECACE.2019.8679164"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshareef, S.M., and Morsi, W.G. (2017, January 22\u201325). Impact of fast charging stations on the voltage flicker in the electric power distribution systems. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), Saskatoon, SK, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPEC.2017.8286226"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garn, T., Vanselow, A., Biedermann, C., Moser, A., and Engel, B. (2022, January 2\u20133). Flicker emission of electric vehicle charging in low voltage grids. Proceedings of the CIRED Porto Workshop 2022: E-mobility and Power Distribution Systems, Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1049\/icp.2022.0714"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshareef, S.M. (2022). Analyzing and Mitigating the Impacts of Integrating Fast-Charging Stations on the Power Quality in Electric Power Distribution Systems. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14095595"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshareef, S.M. (2022). A Novel Smart Charging Method to Mitigate Voltage Fluctuation at Fast Charging Stations. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15051746"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slangen, T., van Wijk, T., Cuk, V., and Cobben, S. (2020). The Propagation and Interaction of Supraharmonics from Electric Vehicle Chargers in a Low-Voltage Grid. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13153865"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, J., Mueller, S., Ungethuem, S., Xiao, X., Collin, A., and Djokic, S. (2016, January 20\u201324). Harmonic and supraharmonic emission of on-board electric vehicle chargers. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exposition-Latin America (PES T&D-LA), Michoac\u00e1n, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/TDC-LA.2016.7805641"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.04.130","article-title":"A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects","volume":"49","author":"Yong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries1010022","article-title":"Power Quality Issues of a Battery Fast Charging Station for a Fully-Electric Public Transport System in Gothenburg City","volume":"1","author":"Thiringer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Batteries"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2013.2283598","article-title":"Method to Assess the Power-Quality Impact of Plug-in Electric Vehicles","volume":"29","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1109\/OJPEL.2021.3054601","article-title":"Grid Impact of Electric Vehicle Fast Charging Stations: Trends, Standards, Issues and Mitigation Measures\u2014An Overview","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.35833\/MPCE.2018.000502","article-title":"Remote Monitoring of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in Smart Campus Parking Lot","volume":"8","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99031","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2928639","article-title":"Electric Vehicles Beyond Energy Storage and Modern Power Networks: Challenges and Applications","volume":"7","author":"Alshahrani","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.11.239","article-title":"Electric vehicles in Spain: An overview of charging systems","volume":"77","author":"Montoya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2019). Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by Public Electricity Networks (Standard No. EN 50160:2010\/A2:2019)."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2012). Energy Measurements System SPE ENERGO, User Manual, ZAP MikroTom."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Kyoritsu Electrical Instruments Works, LTD (2006). Line Up of Clamp Sensors Series, User Manual, Kyoritsu."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2021). Testing and Measurement Techniques\u2014Power Quality Measurement Methods (Standard No. IEC 61000-4-30:2015\/AMD1:2021)."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, H., Zhang, G., and Zheng, Z. (2019). Onboard Charging DC\/DC Converter of Electric Vehicle Based on Synchronous Rectification and Characteristic Analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2613893.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2613893"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85216","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2992741","article-title":"A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery Chargers: Advanced Topologies, Recent Developments and Optimal Selection of FSCW Slot\/Pole Combination","volume":"8","author":"Metwly","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Li, K., Xue, Y., Cui, S., and Niu, Q. (2014). Design of Power Factor Correction System for On-board Charger. Intelligent Computing in Smart Grid and Electrical Vehicles, Springer Berlin Heidelberg."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dewangan, S.K., Sahu, L.K., and Tiwari, A.K. (2022, January 26\u201328). Single Phase Isolated Onboard Charger for Electric Vehicle. Proceedings of the 2022 2nd Asian Conference on Innovation in Technology (ASIANCON), Ravet, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ASIANCON55314.2022.9908984"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8100","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2848238","article-title":"Sliding Mode Control of Single-Phase Interleaved Totem-Pole PFC for Electric Vehicle Onboard Chargers","volume":"67","author":"Mallik","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, U., and Singh, B. (2021, January 21\u201325). A Non-isolated Onboard Charger for Electric Vehicle. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC51675.2021.9490193"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2016.2622221","article-title":"Design of a Fully Decentralized Controlled Electric Vehicle Charger for Mitigating Charging Impact on Power Grids","volume":"53","author":"Teng","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, J., Singh, B., and Kushwaha, R. (2020, January 28\u201329). A Rooftop Solar PV Assisted On-Board Enhanced Power Quality Charging System for E-Rickshaw. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Power, Instrumentation, Control and Computing (PICC), Online.","DOI":"10.1109\/PICC51425.2020.9362366"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"(2009). IEC 61000-4-7:2002\/A1:2008Testing and Measurement Techniques\u2014General Guide on Harmonics and Interharmonics Measurements and iNstrumentation, for Power Supply Systems and Equipment Connected Thereto."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuwalek, P., Otomanski, P., and Wandachowicz, K. (2020). Influence of the Phenomenon of Spectrum Leakage on the Evaluation Process of Metrological Properties of Power Quality Analyser. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13205338"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88685","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3090245","article-title":"A New Advanced Method for an Accurate Assessment of Harmonic and Supraharmonic Distortion in Power System Waveforms","volume":"9","author":"Carpinelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/1\/141\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:49:15Z","timestamp":1760147355000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/1\/141"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s23010141"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23010141","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]}}}