{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T03:58:59Z","timestamp":1776139139915,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,25]],"date-time":"2022-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A high-frequency, piezoelectric thin-film sensor was successfully deposited on a nickel-based superalloy bolt by radio frequency magnetron sputtering to develop a smart, nickel-based superalloy bolt. Ultrasonic response characterization, high accuracy, and repeatability of ultrasonic measurement of axial preload in nickel-based superalloy smart bolts are reported here and were fully demonstrated. The axial preload in the nickel-based superalloy smart bolt was directly measured by the bi-wave method (TOF ratio between transverse and longitudinal-mode waves) without using the traditional integration of a longitudinal and shear transducer. A model concerning the bolt before and after tensioning was established to demonstrate the propagation and displacement distribution of the ultrasonic waves inside a nickel-based superalloy smart bolt. The measured A-scan signal presented significantly favorable features including a mixture of transverse and longitudinal mode waves, a pure and broad frequency spectrum which peaked at 17.14 MHz, and high measurement accuracy below 3% for tension of 4 kN\u201320 kN. For the temporal ultrasonic signal, the measurement envelopes were narrower than for the counterpart of the simulation, justifying the \u2018filtration\u2019 advantage of the high-frequency sensor. Both the TOF change of the single longitudinal-mode wave and the TOF ratio between transverse- and longitudinal-mode waves increased linearly with preload force in the range of 0 kN to 20 kN. Compared with the commercial piezoelectric probe, the proposed probe, based on the combination of a high-frequency, piezoelectric thin-film sensor and a magnetically mounted transducer connector, exhibited high tolerance to temperatures as high as 320 \u00b0C and high repeatability free from some interference factors such as bolt detection position change and couplant layer thickness. The results indicate that this system is a promising axial preload measurement system for high-temperature fasteners and connectors, and the proposed sensor is a practical, high-frequency ultrasonic sensor for non-destructive testing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,27]],"date-time":"2022-12-27T03:03:31Z","timestamp":1672110211000},"page":"220","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Ultrasonic Measurement of Axial Preload in High-Frequency Nickel-Based Superalloy Smart Bolt"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Shuang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics, College of Mathematics and Physics, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhongrui","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics, College of Mathematics and Physics, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guanpin","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics, College of Mathematics and Physics, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xulin","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ru","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huan","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology of CAEP, Chengdu 610299, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2016.12.018","article-title":"Investigating and interpreting failure analysis of high strength nuts made from nickel-base superalloy","volume":"74","author":"Andrew","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s10033-020-0431-x","article-title":"Research Review of Principles and Methods for Ultrasonic Measurement of Axial Stress in Bolts","volume":"33","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2021.108329","article-title":"Thermal damage evaluation of nickel-based superalloys based on ultrasonic nondestructive testing","volume":"183","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1590\/1679-78254231","article-title":"A Review Paper on Looseness Detection Methods in Bolted Structures","volume":"14","author":"Nikravesh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lat. Am. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921720912780","article-title":"Bolt-looseness detection by a new percussion-based method using multifractal analysis and gradient boosting decision tree","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, D.Q., Kim, J.W., Tola, K.D., Kim, W., and Park, S. (2020). Artificial Intelligence-Based Bolt Loosening Diagnosis Using Deep Learning Algorithms for Laser Ultrasonic Wave Propagation Data. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20185329"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055005","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ab06dc","article-title":"Bolt preload measurement based on the acoustoelastic effect using smart piezoelectric bolt","volume":"28","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2008.09.005","article-title":"Measurement of axial stress using mode-converted ultrasound","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2019.102210","article-title":"A shape factor based ultrasonic measurement method for determination of bolt preload","volume":"111","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, C., Kim, Y.J., Cho, C.B., Chin, W.J., and Park, K.-Y. (2020). Estimation on Embedment Length of Anchor Bolt inside Concrete Using Equation for Arrival Time and Shortest Time Path of Ultrasonic Pulse. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10248848"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115022","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ababe1","article-title":"Monitoring the looseness of a bolt through laser ultrasonic","volume":"29","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1009212","article-title":"Ultrasonic Measurement Method of Bolt Axial Stress Based on Time Difference Compensation of Coupling Layer Thickness Change","volume":"70","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3928","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3132679","article-title":"Ultrasonic Measurement of Bolt Axial Stress Using the Energy Ratio of Multiple Echoes","volume":"22","author":"Xingliang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-018-2337-7","article-title":"Geometric accuracy long-term continuous monitoring using strain gauges for CNC machine tools","volume":"98","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsuji, H., and Nakano, M. (2002, January 5\u20139). Bolt preload control for bolted flange joint. Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1115\/PVP2002-1094"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"057004","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa6a8e","article-title":"Impedance based bolt pre-load monitoring using piezoceramic smart washer","volume":"26","author":"Huo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"087001","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/8\/087001","article-title":"Proof-of-concept study of monitoring bolt connection status using a piezoelectric based active sensing method","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2021.108603","article-title":"Measurement method of bolt hole assembly stress based on the combination of ultrasonic longitudinal and transverse waves","volume":"189","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"2","article-title":"Application of ultrasonic measurements to stress assesment on already tightened bolts","volume":"1","author":"Walaszek","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2013.11.003","article-title":"Bolt axial stress measurement based on a mode-converted ultrasound method using an electromagnetic acoustic transducer","volume":"54","author":"Ding","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2002044","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202002044","article-title":"Physical Vapor Deposition in Solid-State Battery Development: From Materials to Devices","volume":"8","author":"Lobe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-022-08840-x","article-title":"Laser polishing: A review of a constantly growing technology in the surface finishing of components made by additive manufacturing","volume":"120","author":"Annamaria","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4567","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.457426","article-title":"Quantifying the shape effect of plasmonic gold nanoparticles on photoacoustic conversion efficiency","volume":"61","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6414","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.463264","article-title":"Laser ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation of sub-millimeter-level crack growth in the rail foot weld","volume":"61","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1258\/ult.2011.011027","article-title":"Development and Application of Piezoelectric Materials for Ultrasound Generation and Detection","volume":"19","author":"Manbachi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1109\/78.492555","article-title":"Localization of the complex spectrum: The S transform","volume":"44","author":"Stockwell","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"041001","article-title":"Linear and Nonlinear Ultrasonic Techniques for Monitoring Stress-Induced Damages in Concrete","volume":"4","author":"Castellano","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval. Diagn. Progn. Eng. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, G., Zhan, H., Liu, Z., Jiang, W., Li, R., and Liu, S. (2022). Evaluation of Axial Preload in Different-Frequency Smart Bolts by Laser Ultrasound. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22228665"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/1\/220\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:50:58Z","timestamp":1760147458000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/23\/1\/220"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,25]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s23010220"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s23010220","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,25]]}}}